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Abstraction, Re-Presentation, and Reflection: An Interpretation of Experience and of Piaget’s Approach/Oluafsqlrw +
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Oluafsqlrw","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ3Ӻ","startOffset":1,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ3Ӻ","endOffset":1230°Ӻ,"quote":"n our century, it was Jean Piaget who vigorously defended and expanded the notion of reflection. He lost no opportunity to distance himself from empiricists who denied the mind and its operations and wanted to reduce all knowing to a passive reception of objective “sense data”. Yet, he should not have found it difficult to agree with Locke’s division of ideas because it is not too different from his own division between figurative and operative knowledge. Similarly, I feel, Locke would have had a certain respect for Piaget’s effort to set understanding at a distance and to make it the object of investigation. And both men, I have no doubt, would have agreed with Dewey about the risk of deceiving oneself by taking mental experiences as given. It is therefore with caution that I shall proceed to discuss, in the pages that follow, first my own view of reflection, abstraction, re-presentation, and the use of symbols, and then a tentative interpretation of Piaget’s position. If, at times, I may sound assertive, I would beg the reader to keep in mind that I am fully aware of the fact that I am merely offering conjectures—but they are conjectures which I have found useful in constructing a model of mental operations.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321070378687677002822":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Argumentation2","data_creacio":1560691473120°
Abstraction, Re-Presentation, and Reflection: An Interpretation of Experience and of Piaget’s Approach/Vh3q1xxocb +
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Vh3q1xxocb","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/blockquoteӶ1Ӻ/pӶ1Ӻ","startOffset":0,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/blockquoteӶ3Ӻ/pӶ1Ӻ","endOffset":371°Ӻ,"quote":"The understanding, like the eye, whilst it makes us see and perceive all other things, takes no notice of itself; and it requires art and pains to set it at a distance and make it its own object. (John Locke, 1690)Ӷ2Ӻ\nAs adults we are constantly deceiving ourselves in regard to the nature and genesis of our mental experiences. (John Dewey, 1895)Ӷ3Ӻ\nOne of the remarkable features of the Behaviorist era in American psychology is that so many leaders and followers of that creed could claim to be Empiricists, cite John Locke as their forefather, and get away with it. Had they read the first chapter of “Book II”Ӷ4Ӻ of his major work, An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, they would have found, among many others, the following enlightening statements. Paragraph 2 has the heading: “All Ideas come from Sensation or Reflection.” Paragraph 4 has the heading “The operations of our Minds”, and it is there that Locke explains what he means by “reflection”:\n\nThis source of ideas every man has wholly in himself; and though it be not sense, as having nothing to do with external objects, yet it is very like it, and might properly enough be called internal sense. But as I call the other Sensation, so I call this Reflection, the ideas it affords being such only as the mind gets by reflecting on its own operations within itself.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321070378687677002822":^°°,^"jQuery321070378687677002822":^°°,^"jQuery321070378687677002822":^°°,^"jQuery321070378687677002822":^°°,^"jQuery321070378687677002822":^°°,^"jQuery321070378687677002822":^°°,^"jQuery321070378687677002822":^°°,^"jQuery321070378687677002822":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"WissenschaftlicheReferenz2","data_creacio":1560691457042°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Bb5ru3rc91","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ14Ӻ","startOffset":1042,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ14Ӻ","endOffset":1123°Ӻ,"quote":"This, of course, immediately raises the question as to why such behaviors arise.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321094791363713064372":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Wissenschaftliche Fragestellung","data_creacio":1551957902317°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Cdgz89aatp","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ12Ӻ","startOffset":0,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ12Ӻ","endOffset":1376°Ӻ,"quote":"There is a wealth of recent work in psychology that illustrates the very same phenomenon: the novel and wholly heterodox exploitation of basic, genetically determined behavioral elements in activities and skills for which no prior natural selection is conceivable. The remarkable success chimpanzees have scored in the various linguistic communication experiments is a case in point. There is no doubt that, in order to do what they are doing now, Washoe, Sarah, Lana, Lucy, and all the other linguistic chimps had to have some phylogenetically established potentialities. There had to be certain capabilities of memory, pattern recognition, cross-modal association and, above all, certain basic inductive processes. The experiments would, presumably, have had much less success with earthworms or lobsters. On the other hand, there is nothing whatsoever to warrant the assumption that any of the combinations of these phylogenetically evolved elements were genetically predisposed in the various ways in which they are now manifest in the chimpanzees’ use of American Sign Language, Yerkish, or the Premack system. In other words, the basic operational elements were there, but their coordination into complex operational systems cannot be ascribed to natural selection, since it is demonstrably the result of learning in a very peculiar and highly sophisticated environment.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321094791363713064372":^°°,^"jQuery321094791363713064372":^°°Ӻ,"text":"Konklusion: Die Koordination in komplexen operativen Systemen kann nicht der natürlichen Selektion zugeschrieben werden, sondern ist Ergebnis des Lernens","category":"Argument","data_creacio":1551957551355°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Cz2zt51w88","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ10Ӻ","startOffset":1321,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ10Ӻ","endOffset":1387°Ӻ,"quote":"If something has been found to work, it is likely to work again.4","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321094791363713064372":^°°,^"jQuery321094791363713064372":^°°,^"jQuery321094791363713064372":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung","data_creacio":1551956630385°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Dz5gvl6lhi","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ11Ӻ","startOffset":1013,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ11Ӻ","endOffset":2249°Ӻ,"quote":"Although I certainly do not believe that computers are like brains, computers are a useful metaphor in the context of genetic determination. When a computer comes from the manufacturer it has wired-in as hardware a small number of very basic operations. If one looks closely, there are only three operations; to record, to read, and to compare items of a certain form. At that point that is all the computer can do, and one may consider these three operations its genetically determined operational repertoire.5 Now comes the programmer, who designs software in the form of compilers and programs, all of which are, in fact, nothing but intricate variations of combinations of the basic operations—and suddenly the computer can handle numbers, from plain arithmetic to the most abstruse forms of Calculus; it can monitor bank accounts and inventories; it can control the start and splash-down of spaceships; and it can even play all sorts of games. It is difficult to see why and how anyone should want to maintain that these accomplishments, as well as all those that a future programmer might implement, are hardware-determined or must be considered the result of the same selective processes that led to the computer’s manufacture.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321094791363713064372":^°°,^"jQuery321094791363713064372":^°°,^"jQuery321094791363713064372":^°°Ӻ,"text":"Metapher","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Rethorische Figur","data_creacio":1551957052449°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"E4yvmpuf9x","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ10Ӻ","startOffset":516,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ10Ӻ","endOffset":684°Ӻ,"quote":"Unlike what happens on the evolutionary scale, selection in ontogeny does not, as a rule, eliminate organisms but only an organism’s unsuccessful attempts or responses.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321073766502845175832":^°°,^"jQuery321073766502845175832":^°°,^"jQuery321073766502845175832":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung","data_creacio":1550607195633°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Ep7v5g4inh","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ14Ӻ","startOffset":743,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ14Ӻ","endOffset":1041°Ӻ,"quote":"From an evolutionary point of view, it would be far more consistent to say that, like mutations, novel behaviors may arise for no biological reason at all and may be perpetuated from generation to generation, provided they do not diminish the organisms’ biological viability below a critical point.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321094791363713064372":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung","data_creacio":1551957766966°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Eyokmu59on","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ3Ӻ","startOffset":0,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ3Ӻ","endOffset":501°Ӻ,"quote":"At the end of the introductory chapter to his Sociobiology, Wilson (1975, p. 6) says that the cannibalization of comparative psychology “seems to be indicated both by the extrapolation of current events and by considerations of the logical relationship behavioral biology holds with the remainder of science.” My colleagues on this panel are more competent than I to examine extrapolations from current events. I shall focus on certain logical relationships that seem to be relevant to Wilson’s claim.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321073766502845175832":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Narrativ","data_creacio":1550604980359°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"F9biv20md4","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ8Ӻ","startOffset":0,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ8Ӻ","endOffset":2348°Ӻ,"quote":"An “efficient” cause is an item to which we attribute the power to create a change, and the resulting change is then considered its effect. The agent in natural selection is the environment, or Nature, if you will—conspecifics and everything except the organism itself—and the change it creates is on the negative side alone: It eliminates. Insofar as it selects, Nature neither fosters nor encourages, it merely kills off. What does it kill? It kills those organisms that do not manage to overcome the difficulties, the obstacles, the pitfalls that it presents to them. Hence it is thoroughly misleading to speak of selection for—selection is always against. In other words, Nature places constraints in the path of survival and reproduction. That, however, still does not fully explain selection. If all organisms were exactly the same, there could be no selection and no differential reproduction. Facing an obstacle, they would either all perish or all survive. But there is variability, and organisms are never all the same. This is due partly to mutations and partly to the imperfection of their procedures for reproduction and replication.3 The variations that constitute the stock within which selection can operate are wholly accidental. There must be no suggestion of evolutionary design or of environmental pressure toward survival mechanisms, for the moment we allow any such idea of directed change, the theory of evolution collapses into a teleological myth. On the other hand, if all variation is accidental, and if selection operates on what is there, by setting up constraints that eliminate some variants while others pass, it should be clear that the word “adaptation” cannot refer to any activity on the part of the surviving organisms.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321073766502845175832":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse","data_creacio":1550605810188°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Hflp6y2df4","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ10Ӻ","startOffset":0,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ10Ӻ","endOffset":516°Ӻ,"quote":"The situation is quite different in ontogeny, where we can, indeed, speak meaningfully of an individual organism’s adaptation to environmental circumstances. The changes an organism shows in its behavior can to a large extent be conceived of as learning, and learning can always be considered as selection from a variety of possibilities. There is the variation or generation of a stock of different behaviors, and there is the operational triad of trial, error, and the inductive retention of successful solutions.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321073766502845175832":^°°,^"jQuery321073766502845175832":^°°,^"jQuery321073766502845175832":^°°,^"jQuery321073766502845175832":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse","data_creacio":1550607161406°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Jhk7hon5tx","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ8Ӻ","startOffset":1759,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ8Ӻ","endOffset":2348°Ӻ,"quote":"In order to survive a particular situation or change in the environment, an organism must have the required characteristics before the situation or change in the environment occurs that makes these characteristics necessary. In other words, surviving organisms are adapted before the event and it would make no sense whatever to say that they did or could change because of the event. There simply is no causal connection between the selecting event or environmental pressure and the properties the surviving organisms have acquired at a prior time through mutation or some other accident.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321073766502845175832":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung","data_creacio":1550605820424°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Lnr923y61m","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ7Ӻ","startOffset":0,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ7Ӻ","endOffset":510°Ӻ,"quote":"A rather more serious trap is the misconception of selection as an ordinary causative process. David Chiszar (in this symposium) has drawn attention to the difference among investigations searching for explanations in terms of one or another of the four Aristotelian causes. When we speak of natural selection, it is crucial to remain aware of the fact that we are referring to a conceptual situation that does not involve efficient causation in the same way as do the explanatory concepts of other sciences.2","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321073766502845175832":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Wissenschaftliche Referenz","data_creacio":1550605539570°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Lrdpl4i5z8","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ12Ӻ","startOffset":0,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ12Ӻ","endOffset":1116°Ӻ,"quote":"There is a wealth of recent work in psychology that illustrates the very same phenomenon: the novel and wholly heterodox exploitation of basic, genetically determined behavioral elements in activities and skills for which no prior natural selection is conceivable. The remarkable success chimpanzees have scored in the various linguistic communication experiments is a case in point. There is no doubt that, in order to do what they are doing now, Washoe, Sarah, Lana, Lucy, and all the other linguistic chimps had to have some phylogenetically established potentialities. There had to be certain capabilities of memory, pattern recognition, cross-modal association and, above all, certain basic inductive processes. The experiments would, presumably, have had much less success with earthworms or lobsters. On the other hand, there is nothing whatsoever to warrant the assumption that any of the combinations of these phylogenetically evolved elements were genetically predisposed in the various ways in which they are now manifest in the chimpanzees’ use of American Sign Language, Yerkish, or the Premack system.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321094791363713064372":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse","data_creacio":1551957514356°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"M12vslb6fd","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ13Ӻ","startOffset":0,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ13Ӻ","endOffset":650°Ӻ,"quote":"Finally, when we come to the genesis of culture, we have to take into account a phenomenon that is radically different from anything that occurs in biological evolution: the rapid propagation, within a population of organisms, of novel behaviors that, at the time of their spread, have nothing whatever to do with the organisms’ survival or their genetic fitness in terms of the perpetuation of their genes. We have, today, enough observational material to say that there are indeed behaviors that spread in a population without the help of genetic processes or natural selection. They spread for reasons that many of us may be reluctant to specify.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321094791363713064372":^°°,^"jQuery321094791363713064372":^°°,^"jQuery321094791363713064372":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse","data_creacio":1551957657297°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Mie50bmpi7","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ12Ӻ","startOffset":1116,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ12Ӻ","endOffset":1376°Ӻ,"quote":"In other words, the basic operational elements were there, but their coordination into complex operational systems cannot be ascribed to natural selection, since it is demonstrably the result of learning in a very peculiar and highly sophisticated environment.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321094791363713064372":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung","data_creacio":1551957506397°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Oybmbzou49","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ10Ӻ","startOffset":1183,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ10Ӻ","endOffset":1320°Ӻ,"quote":"That is what Thorndike’s law of effect tells us, and it is also what the principle of inductive inference expresses in its simplest form:","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321094791363713064372":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse","data_creacio":1551956659643°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Pui85bouz3","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ10Ӻ","startOffset":0,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ10Ӻ","endOffset":684°Ӻ,"quote":"The situation is quite different in ontogeny, where we can, indeed, speak meaningfully of an individual organism’s adaptation to environmental circumstances. The changes an organism shows in its behavior can to a large extent be conceived of as learning, and learning can always be considered as selection from a variety of possibilities. There is the variation or generation of a stock of different behaviors, and there is the operational triad of trial, error, and the inductive retention of successful solutions. Unlike what happens on the evolutionary scale, selection in ontogeny does not, as a rule, eliminate organisms but only an organism’s unsuccessful attempts or responses.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321094791363713064372":^°°,^"jQuery321094791363713064372":^°°Ӻ,"text":"Konklusion: In der Ontologie hat Selektion nicht Eliminierung zur Folge, sondern erfolglose Versuche","category":"Argument","data_creacio":1551956447053°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Q11yok691f","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ10Ӻ","startOffset":685,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ10Ӻ","endOffset":1387°Ӻ,"quote":"Hence one may also introduce the concept of reinforcement which, in phylogeny, would remain vacuous, since the only thing that could count as reinforcement on that level (i.e., survival) is not contingent upon the organism’s modification of its behavior but upon its past and therefore immutable history of genetic variation. \nOn the other hand, the result of ontogenetic adaptation is again viability. What an organism learns is retained for the very reason that it leads to satisfactory results. That is what Thorndike’s law of effect tells us, and it is also what the principle of inductive inference expresses in its simplest form: If something has been found to work, it is likely to work again.4","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321094791363713064372":^°°,^"jQuery321094791363713064372":^°°,^"jQuery321094791363713064372":^°°,^"jQuery321094791363713064372":^°°,^"jQuery321094791363713064372":^°°,^"jQuery321094791363713064372":^°°,^"jQuery321094791363713064372":^°°Ӻ,"text":"Konklusion: Ein Organismus lernt, was zu zufriedenstellenden Ergebnissen führt","category":"Argument","data_creacio":1551956782357°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Q44osehrbh","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ13Ӻ","startOffset":650,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ13Ӻ","endOffset":1774°Ӻ,"quote":"Let me cite one example that is particularly well-documented and well-known: the Japanese macaque Imo on Koshima Islet that started washing her sweet potatoes (Kawai, 1965). Within 10 years the entire population, with the exception of a few old males who were too conservative, practiced potato washing. There was no time for a mutation or some other genetic accident to increase or decrease anyone’s viability. Nor, indeed, is there any evidence that potato washing has increased anyone’s genetic fitness. But as the new activity quickly created exceptional familiarity with water, it led to yet another novel behavior: swimming. Since all this has taken place in a country where earthquakes and tectonic disasters are not at all impossible, it might be tempting to conjecture that if Koshima Islet should one day sink into the sea, the swimming skill might yet become the crucial feature that allows these macaques to reach a safe shore while the macaques in other sinking regions perish. Subsequent generations of sociobiologists could then use the swimming macaques as a textbook example for \n“evolutionary explanation.”","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321094791363713064372":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Beispiel","data_creacio":1551957699768°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Qwhzl16st6","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ4Ӻ","startOffset":0,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ4Ӻ","endOffset":178°Ӻ,"quote":"Most, if not all, of the heated debates about sociobiology have concerned the question of how much of the behavior of living organisms is susceptible to evolutionary explanation.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321073766502845175832":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Wissenschaftliche Fragestellung","data_creacio":1550605037967°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Tma0ivz7a1","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ10Ӻ","startOffset":685,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ10Ӻ","endOffset":1087°Ӻ,"quote":"Hence one may also introduce the concept of reinforcement which, in phylogeny, would remain vacuous, since the only thing that could count as reinforcement on that level (i.e., survival) is not contingent upon the organism’s modification of its behavior but upon its past and therefore immutable history of genetic variation. \nOn the other hand, the result of ontogenetic adaptation is again viability.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321094791363713064372":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse","data_creacio":1551956650772°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"U74jy5vhph","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ13Ӻ","startOffset":0,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ14Ӻ","endOffset":1041°Ӻ,"quote":"Finally, when we come to the genesis of culture, we have to take into account a phenomenon that is radically different from anything that occurs in biological evolution: the rapid propagation, within a population of organisms, of novel behaviors that, at the time of their spread, have nothing whatever to do with the organisms’ survival or their genetic fitness in terms of the perpetuation of their genes. We have, today, enough observational material to say that there are indeed behaviors that spread in a population without the help of genetic processes or natural selection. They spread for reasons that many of us may be reluctant to specify. Let me cite one example that is particularly well-documented and well-known: the Japanese macaque Imo on Koshima Islet that started washing her sweet potatoes (Kawai, 1965). Within 10 years the entire population, with the exception of a few old males who were too conservative, practiced potato washing. There was no time for a mutation or some other genetic accident to increase or decrease anyone’s viability. Nor, indeed, is there any evidence that potato washing has increased anyone’s genetic fitness. But as the new activity quickly created exceptional familiarity with water, it led to yet another novel behavior: swimming. Since all this has taken place in a country where earthquakes and tectonic disasters are not at all impossible, it might be tempting to conjecture that if Koshima Islet should one day sink into the sea, the swimming skill might yet become the crucial feature that allows these macaques to reach a safe shore while the macaques in other sinking regions perish. Subsequent generations of sociobiologists could then use the swimming macaques as a textbook example for \n“evolutionary explanation.”\nBut such a scenario in which swimming might become an important asset toward the survival of macaques or macaque genes has not yet happened. Yet the washing of food and swimming have become part of the behavioral repertoire of a macaque population without the benefit of an evolutionary explanation. Who is to say how many quite generally exhibited behaviors in the repertoire of more or less sophisticated organisms have arisen in the same spontaneous, selection-independent way? The proposal of radical sociobiologists to reduce the origin of all behaviors to the “mechanistic” process of natural selection seems doomed from the start. The reason, I believe, is again the misconception of selection as a mechanistic, i.e., efficient cause. \nFrom an evolutionary point of view, it would be far more consistent to say that, like mutations, novel behaviors may arise for no biological reason at all and may be perpetuated from generation to generation, provided they do not diminish the organisms’ biological viability below a critical point.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321094791363713064372":^°°,^"jQuery321094791363713064372":^°°,^"jQuery321094791363713064372":^°°,^"jQuery321094791363713064372":^°°,^"jQuery321094791363713064372":^°°,^"jQuery321094791363713064372":^°°Ӻ,"text":"Konklusion: Neue Verhaltensweisen entstehen, wie Mutationen, ohne biologischen Grund und werden von Generation zu Generation aufrecht erhalten, sofern sie die Lebensfähigkeit nicht beinträchtigen","category":"Argument","data_creacio":1551957878842°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Wt3hz3yh9o","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ6Ӻ","startOffset":0,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ6Ӻ","endOffset":198°Ӻ,"quote":"The term natural selection has been around for so long that, as a rule, we take its meaning for granted and are quite ready to accept it as one of the established explanatory principles of science.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321073766502845175832":^°°Ӻ,"text":"Infragestellung der allgemein gültigen Annahmen und Sichtweisen","category":"Rethorische Figur","data_creacio":1550605085694°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Xvma2lsnp4","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ10Ӻ","startOffset":1087,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ10Ӻ","endOffset":1182°Ӻ,"quote":"What an organism learns is retained for the very reason that it leads to satisfactory results.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321094791363713064372":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung","data_creacio":1551956642536°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Ykactjanqj","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ8Ӻ","startOffset":0,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ8Ӻ","endOffset":2346°Ӻ,"quote":"An “efficient” cause is an item to which we attribute the power to create a change, and the resulting change is then considered its effect. The agent in natural selection is the environment, or Nature, if you will—conspecifics and everything except the organism itself—and the change it creates is on the negative side alone: It eliminates. Insofar as it selects, Nature neither fosters nor encourages, it merely kills off. What does it kill? It kills those organisms that do not manage to overcome the difficulties, the obstacles, the pitfalls that it presents to them. Hence it is thoroughly misleading to speak of selection for—selection is always against. In other words, Nature places constraints in the path of survival and reproduction. That, however, still does not fully explain selection. If all organisms were exactly the same, there could be no selection and no differential reproduction. Facing an obstacle, they would either all perish or all survive. But there is variability, and organisms are never all the same. This is due partly to mutations and partly to the imperfection of their procedures for reproduction and replication.Ӷ4Ӻ The variations that constitute the stock within which selection can operate are wholly accidental. There must be no suggestion of evolutionary design or of environmental pressure toward survival mechanisms, for the moment we allow any such idea of directed change, the theory of evolution collapses into a teleological myth. On the other hand, if all variation is accidental, and if selection operates on what is there, by setting up constraints that eliminate some variants while others pass, it should be clear that the word “adaptation” cannot refer to any activity on the part of the surviving organisms. In order to survive a particular situation or change in the environment, an organism must have the required characteristics before the situation or change in the environment occurs that makes these characteristics necessary. In other words, surviving organisms are adapted before the event and it would make no sense whatever to say that they did or could change because of the event. There simply is no causal connection between the selecting event or environmental pressure and the properties the surviving organisms have acquired at a prior time through mutation or some other acciden","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321098009481201200522":^°°,^"jQuery321098009481201200522":^°°,^"jQuery321098009481201200522":^°°,^"jQuery321098009481201200522":^°°Ӻ,"text":"Konklusion: Um eine bestimmte Sittuation oder Veränderung der Unmwelt zu überleben, muss ein Organismus die erforderlichen Eigenschaften durch Mutation bereits vorher erworben haben. ","category":"Argument","data_creacio":1550605834607°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Z6b9k4uwl6","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ14Ӻ","startOffset":0,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ14Ӻ","endOffset":741°Ӻ,"quote":"But such a scenario in which swimming might become an important asset toward the survival of macaques or macaque genes has not yet happened. Yet the washing of food and swimming have become part of the behavioral repertoire of a macaque population without the benefit of an evolutionary explanation. Who is to say how many quite generally exhibited behaviors in the repertoire of more or less sophisticated organisms have arisen in the same spontaneous, selection-independent way? The proposal of radical sociobiologists to reduce the origin of all behaviors to the “mechanistic” process of natural selection seems doomed from the start. The reason, I believe, is again the misconception of selection as a mechanistic, i.e., efficient cause.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321094791363713064372":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse","data_creacio":1551957743972°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Z86dv5yms9","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ5Ӻ","startOffset":0,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ5Ӻ","endOffset":679°Ӻ,"quote":"“Sociobiology,” says Wilson (1975, p. 4), “is defined as the systematic study of the biological basis of all social behavior.” In the study of behavior, as Wilson sees it, explanations must be formulated in terms of evolutionary biology—that is, “the Modern Synthesis … in which each phenomenon is weighed for its adaptive significance and then related to the basic principles of population genetics” (p. 4). Within the theory of evolution, adaptation is the outcome of natural selection, and “natural selection is the process whereby certain genes gain representation in the following generations superior to that of other genes located at the same chromosome positions” (p. 3).","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321073766502845175832":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Wissenschaftliche Referenz","data_creacio":1550605234245°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"A8suhxi8m5","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ3Ӻ","startOffset":1055,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ3Ӻ","endOffset":1586°Ӻ,"quote":"Indeed, one need not enter very far into constructivist thought to realize that it inevitably leads to the contention that man – and man alone – is responsible for his thinking, his knowledge and, therefore, also for what he does. Today, when behaviorists are still intent on pushing all responsibility into the environment, and sociobiologists are trying to place much of it into genes, a doctrine may well seem uncomfortable if it suggests that we have no one but ourselves to thank for the world in which we appear to be living.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321054842665956511262":^°°Ӻ,"text":"Erkenntnisse, die schockieren","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Rethorische Figur","data_creacio":1551171207559°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Ahkgpchgv7","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ16Ӻ","startOffset":612,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ16Ӻ","endOffset":899°Ӻ,"quote":"The organisms that we find alive at any particular moment of evolutionary history, and their ways of behaving, are the result of cumulative accidental variations, and the influence of the environment was and is, under all circumstances, limited to the elimination of non-viable variants.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321054842665956511262":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse","data_creacio":1551173047438°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Axy8ns9hny","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ8Ӻ","startOffset":433,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ8Ӻ","endOffset":973°Ӻ,"quote":"The epistemological problem – how we acquire knowledge of reality, and how reliable and “true” that knowledge might be – occupies contemporary philosophy no less than it occupied Plato. The ways and means of the search for solutions have, of course, become more varied and complicated, but the basic question has, almost without exception, remained the same. The way that question was put at the very beginning made it impossible to answer, and the attempts that have since been made could not get anywhere near a solution to the problem.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321054842665956511262":^°°Ӻ,"text":"Irreführungen aufzeigen","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Rethorische Figur","data_creacio":1551171299161°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"B4fsul6wwd","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ15Ӻ","startOffset":426,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ15Ӻ","endOffset":630°Ӻ,"quote":"“natural selection” does not in any positive sense select the fittest, the sturdiest, the best, or the truest, but it functions negatively, in that it simply lets go under whatever does not pass the test.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321028761460178685332":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung","data_creacio":1551960660389°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Bdffpm325q","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ41Ӻ","startOffset":800,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ42Ӻ","endOffset":358°Ӻ,"quote":"In these cases, as in all conceivable ones, it should be clear that the criteria by means of which sameness or difference is established are criteria that are created and chosen by the judging, experiencing subject and cannot be ascribed to an experiencer-independent world. \nFor an understanding of radical constructivism it is even more important to appreciate the subject’s active operating that gives rise to regularities and invariances in the experiential world. Both regularity and constancy presuppose repeated experience, and repetition can be established only on the basis of a comparison that yields a judgment of sameness.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321054842665956511262":^°°,^"jQuery321054842665956511262":^°°,^"jQuery321054842665956511262":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse","data_creacio":1551175798227°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Bgxhqrc31a","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ34Ӻ","startOffset":0,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ34Ӻ","endOffset":796°Ӻ,"quote":"First, there is the realization that knowledge, i.e., what is “known,” cannot be the result of a passive receiving but originates as the product of an active subject’s activity. This activity is, of course, not a manipulating of “things in themselves,” i.e., of objects that could be thought to possess, prior to being experienced, the properties and the structure which the experiencer attributes to them. We therefore call the activity that builds up knowledge “operating,” and it is the operating of that cognitive entity which, as Piaget has so succinctly formulated, organizes its experiential world by organizing itself. Epistemology thus becomes the study of how the mind operates, of the ways and means it employs to construct a relatively regular world out of the flow of its experience.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321028761460178685332":^°,"sizzle1551958107468":^"undefined":^"parentNode":Ӷ372475,253,trueӺ°°°,^"jQuery321028761460178685332":^°,"sizzle1551958107468":^"undefined":^"parentNode":Ӷ372237,253,trueӺ°°°Ӻ,"text":"Wissen kann nicht das Ergebnis eines passiven Empfanges sein, sondern ist das Produkt einer aktiven Subjektivität. ","category":"Argument","data_creacio":1551174617950°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Bi6lbmgz68","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ26Ӻ","startOffset":0,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ26Ӻ","endOffset":362°Ӻ,"quote":"Vico’s battle cry “Verum ipsum factum” – the truth is the same as the made (factum and “fact” both come from the Latin facere, to make!) – has been quoted quite frequently since Vico was rediscovered in our century as a cultural historian and a philosopher of history. His revolutionary epistemological ideas, however, are rarely mentioned, let alone explicated.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321054842665956511262":^°°Ӻ,"text":"Ideen, die nicht beachtet werden","category":"Rethorische Figur","data_creacio":1551174138295°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"C90m7tt348","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ30Ӻ","startOffset":796,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ30Ӻ","endOffset":1122°Ӻ,"quote":"Hence, Vico’s position is in that respect similar to that of Kant, who says; “Nature, therefore … is the collective conception of all objects of experience.”23 For Kant, it is the “raw material of sensory impression” which “the mind’s activity ... processes so that it becomes knowledge of objects that we call experience.” 24","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321054842665956511262":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse","data_creacio":1551174330811°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Cbpbl0so14","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ36Ӻ","startOffset":0,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ36Ӻ","endOffset":650°Ӻ,"quote":"Constructivism necessarily begins with the (intuitively confirmed) assumption that all cognitive activity takes place within the experiential world of a goal-directed consciousness. Goal-directedness, in this context has, of course, nothing to do with goals in an “external” reality. The goals that are involved here arise for no other reason than this: a cognitive organism evaluates its experiences, and because it evaluates them, it tends to repeat certain ones and to avoid others. The products of conscious cognitive activity, therefore, always have a purpose and are, at least originally, assessed according to how well they serve that purpose.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321028761460178685332":^°,"sizzle1551958107468":^"undefined":^"parentNode":Ӷ438298,253,trueӺ°°°,^"jQuery321028761460178685332":^°,"sizzle1551958107468":^"undefined":^"parentNode":Ӷ437799,253,trueӺ°°°Ӻ,"text":"Die Produkte bewusster kognitiver Aktivität haben immer einen Zweck und werden danach bewertet, wie gut sie diesen Zweck erfüllen","category":"Argument","data_creacio":1551174804943°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"D613lsnbc0","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ28Ӻ","startOffset":356,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ29Ӻ","endOffset":578°Ӻ,"quote":"Though Berkeley says “that all the choir of heaven and furniture of earth, in a word all those bodies which compose the mighty frame of the world, have not any subsistence without a mind, their being is to be perceived or known,”21 and thus presupposes the activity of the intellect, his accent always lies on the being, whereas Vico invariably stresses human knowledge and its construction. \nThere can be no doubt that Vico’s explicit use of facere, his constant reference to the composing, the putting together and, in short, the active construction of all knowledge and experience come very much closer to Piaget’s genetic epistemology and to modern constructivism in general, than did Berkeley. Nowhere does that become clearer than in a statement with which Vico anticipated the epistemological attitude of some of today’s philosophers of science: “Human knowledge is nothing else but the endeavor to make things correspond to one another in shapely proportion.”22","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321028761460178685332":^°°,^"jQuery321028761460178685332":^°°,^"jQuery321028761460178685332":^°°,^"jQuery321028761460178685332":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Wissenschaftliche Referenz","data_creacio":1551962739605°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Osp0t2wuti","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ14Ӻ","startOffset":0,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ14Ӻ","endOffset":1004°Ӻ,"quote":"In this one respect the basic principle of radical constructivist epistemology coincides with that of the theory of evolution: Just a the environment places constraints on the living organism (biological structures) and eliminates all variants that in some way transgress the limits within which they are possible or “viable,” so the experiential world, be it that of everyday life or of the laboratory, constitutes the testing ground for our ideas (cognitive structures). That applies to the very first regularities the infant establishes in its barely differentiated experience, it applies to the rules with whose help adults try to manage their common sense world, and it applies to the hypotheses, the theories, and the so-called “natural laws” that scientists formulate in their endeavor to glean lasting stability and order from the widest possible range of experiences. In the light of further experience, regularities, rules of thumb, and theories either prove themselves reliable or they do not","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321028761460178685332":^°,"sizzle1551958107468":^"undefined":^"parentNode":Ӷ97880,31,trueӺ°°°,^"jQuery321028761460178685332":^°,"sizzle1551958107468":^"undefined":^"parentNode":Ӷ89996,31,trueӺ°°°Ӻ,"text":"Weil die Erlebniswelt genauso wie die Umwelt dem Organismen Grenzen setzt, werden im Lichte der Erfahrung Regelmäßigkeiten, Faustregeln und Theorien entweder als zuverlässig oder nicht zuverlässig eingestuft. \n","category":"Argument","data_creacio":1551171573973°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Et2a69rrc7","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ16Ӻ","startOffset":901,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ16Ӻ","endOffset":997°Ӻ,"quote":"Hence, the environment can, at best, be held responsible for extinction, but never for survival.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321054842665956511262":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung","data_creacio":1551173057855°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Filz8w2g1p","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ9Ӻ","startOffset":0,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ9Ӻ","endOffset":756°Ӻ,"quote":"On the whole, even after Kant, the situation did not change. There were some who tried to take his Critique of Pure Reason seriously, but the pressure of philosophical tradition was overwhelming. In spite of Kant’s thesis that our mind does not derive laws from nature, but imposes them on it,5 most scientists today still consider themselves “discoverers” who unveil nature’s secrets and slowly but steadily expand the range of human knowledge; and countless philosophers have dedicated themselves to the task of ascribing to that laboriously acquired knowledge the unquestionable certainty which the rest of the world expects of genuine truth. Now as ever, there reigns the conviction that knowledge is knowledge only if it reflects the world as it is.6","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321054842665956511262":^°°,^"jQuery321054842665956511262":^°°,^"jQuery321054842665956511262":^°°,^"jQuery321054842665956511262":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Wissenschaftliche Referenz","data_creacio":1551171327784°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Gf3f8cp9w5","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ32Ӻ","startOffset":0,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ32Ӻ","endOffset":272°Ӻ,"quote":"As elegant as his system is, it still leaves open two questions. First, what are the conditions under which a new construct will be considered compatible with what has already been constructed? Second, why should any organism undertake the task of cognitive construction?","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321054842665956511262":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Wissenschaftliche Fragestellung","data_creacio":1551174546698°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Ggav31h7bl","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ12Ӻ","startOffset":444,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ13Ӻ","endOffset":496°Ӻ,"quote":"From the radical constructivist point of view, all of us – scientists, philosophers, laymen, school children, animals, indeed any kind of living organism - face our environment as the burglar faces a lock that he has to unlock in order to get at the loot.\nThis is the sense in which the word “fit” applies to Darwin’s and neo-Darwinist theories of evolution. Unfortunately, Darwin himself used the expression “survival of the fittest.” In doing that, he prepared the way or the misguided notion that, on the basis of his theory, one could consider certain things fitter than fit, and that among those there could even be a fittest.7 But in a theory in which survival is the only criterion for the selection of species, there are only two possibilities:","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321028761460178685332":^°°,^"jQuery321028761460178685332":^°°,^"jQuery321028761460178685332":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse","data_creacio":1551960140804°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Ha7iediqym","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ23Ӻ","startOffset":821,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ23Ӻ","endOffset":1162°Ӻ,"quote":"Sextus used, among other things, an apple as an example. To our senses it appears smooth, scented, sweet, and yellow – but it is far from self-evident that the real apple possesses these properties, just as it is not at all obvious that it does not possess other properties as well, properties that are simply not perceived by our senses.16","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321054842665956511262":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Beispiel","data_creacio":1551173624168°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Hwdhrz42pt","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ36Ӻ","startOffset":486,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ36Ӻ","endOffset":650°Ӻ,"quote":"The products of conscious cognitive activity, therefore, always have a purpose and are, at least originally, assessed according to how well they serve that purpose.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321054842665956511262":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung","data_creacio":1551174773450°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"I8efujzxtp","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ42Ӻ","startOffset":359,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ42Ӻ","endOffset":552°Ӻ,"quote":"Sameness, however, as we have seen, is always relative: Objects, and experiences in general, are the “same” with respect to the properties or components that have been checked in a comparison.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321054842665956511262":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung","data_creacio":1551175817555°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Ifqj66kork","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ35Ӻ","startOffset":470,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ35Ӻ","endOffset":644°Ӻ,"quote":"because the success of a key does not depend on finding a lock into which it might fit, but solely on whether or not it opens the way to the particular goal we want to reach.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321028761460178685332":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung","data_creacio":1551965337146°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Jeek5zyvsv","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ38Ӻ","startOffset":0,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ38Ӻ","endOffset":222°Ӻ,"quote":"As Piaget has shown, the concepts of equivalence and individual identity are not given a priori (innate) but have to be built up; and every “normal” child does, in fact, build them up within the first two years of life.30","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321054842665956511262":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Wissenschaftliche Referenz","data_creacio":1551175564073°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Jvbbeq0ddy","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ30Ӻ","startOffset":1861,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ30Ӻ","endOffset":2246°Ӻ,"quote":"“A priori” is tantamount to “built-in” or “innate,” and Kant’s justification of it leads, albeit in a roundabout fashion, to God and to a Platonic mythology of ideas. In that respect, Vico is more modern and more prosaic. Of the category of causality, for instance, he says: “If true means to have been made, then to prove something by means of its cause is the same as causing it.”25","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321054842665956511262":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Wissenschaftliche Referenz","data_creacio":1551174526878°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Kau6mzf6nq","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ21Ӻ","startOffset":140,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ21Ӻ","endOffset":495°Ӻ,"quote":"Already Xenophanes, one of the earliest of the pre-Socratics, said that no man has ever seen certain truth, nor will there ever be one who knows about the gods and the things of the world, “for if he succeeds to the full in saying what is completely true, he himself is, nevertheless, unaware of it; opinion (seeming) is fixed by fate upon all things.”14","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321054842665956511262":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Wissenschaftliche Referenz","data_creacio":1551173486194°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"L0fc4ds4mj","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ35Ӻ","startOffset":0,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ35Ӻ","endOffset":470°Ӻ,"quote":"If, however, as Alcmaeon already suggested, the human activity of knowing cannot lead to a certain and true picture of the world but only to conjectural interpretation, then that activity can be viewed as the creating of keys with whose help man unlocks paths towards the goals he chooses. That means that the second question we asked at the end of the preceding section, namely, why a cognitive activity should take place, is inextricably connected with the first one:","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321028761460178685332":^°°,^"jQuery321028761460178685332":^°°,^"jQuery321028761460178685332":^°°,^"jQuery321028761460178685332":^°°,^"jQuery321028761460178685332":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse","data_creacio":1551965327427°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Lq8qrfv45i","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ34Ӻ","startOffset":178,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ34Ӻ","endOffset":796°Ӻ,"quote":"This activity is, of course, not a manipulating of “things in themselves,” i.e., of objects that could be thought to possess, prior to being experienced, the properties and the structure which the experiencer attributes to them. We therefore call the activity that builds up knowledge “operating,” and it is the operating of that cognitive entity which, as Piaget has so succinctly formulated, organizes its experiential world by organizing itself. Epistemology thus becomes the study of how the mind operates, of the ways and means it employs to construct a relatively regular world out of the flow of its experience.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321054842665956511262":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse","data_creacio":1551174590008°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Ls36qph8h8","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ31Ӻ","startOffset":0,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ31Ӻ","endOffset":281°Ӻ,"quote":"Causes thus originate in the putting together of individual elements; that is, they originate from an experiencer’s active operating, such that, for instance, “the determinate (i.e., causally determined) form of the object springs from the order and the composition of elements.”26","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321054842665956511262":^°°,^"jQuery321054842665956511262":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Wissenschaftliche Referenz","data_creacio":1551174537006°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Luw055wkng","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ3Ӻ","startOffset":0,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ3Ӻ","endOffset":1054°Ӻ,"quote":"Within the limits of one chapter, an unconventional way of thinking can certainly not be thoroughly justified, but it can, perhaps, be presented in its most characteristic features anchored here and there in single points. There is, of course, the danger of being misunderstood. In the case of constructivism, there is the additional risk that it will be discarded at first sight because, like skepticism – with which it has a certain amount in common – it might seem too cool and critical, or simply incompatible with ordinary common sense. The proponents of an idea, as a rule, explain its non-acceptance differently than do the critics and opponents. Being myself much involved, it seems to me that the resistance met in the 18th century by Giambattista Vico, the first true constructivist, and by Silvio Ceccato and Jean Piaget in the more recent past, is not so much due to inconsistencies or gaps in their argumentation, as to the justifiable suspicion that constructivism intends to undermine too large a part of the traditional view of the world.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321054842665956511262":^°°,^"jQuery321054842665956511262":^°°,^"jQuery321054842665956511262":^°°Ӻ,"text":"Schwächen und die Möglichkeit der Missinterpretation der eigenen Theorie aufzeigen","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Rethorische Figur","data_creacio":1551171138644°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"M30crhx4in","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ34Ӻ","startOffset":0,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ34Ӻ","endOffset":178°Ӻ,"quote":"First, there is the realization that knowledge, i.e., what is “known,” cannot be the result of a passive receiving but originates as the product of an active subject’s activity.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321054842665956511262":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung","data_creacio":1551174580104°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Mukx7wqy5i","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ30Ӻ","startOffset":235,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ30Ӻ","endOffset":796°Ӻ,"quote":"Vico does not answer that question; rather, he makes it superfluous and meaningless. If, as he says, the world that we experience and get to know is necessarily constructed by ourselves, it should not surprise us that it seems relatively stable. To appreciate this, it is necessary to keep in mind that the most fundamental trait of constructivist epistemology, i.e., that the world that is constructed is an experiential world that consists of experiences and makes no claim whatsoever about “truth” in the sense of correspondence with an ontological reality.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321028761460178685332":^°,"sizzle1551958107468":^"undefined":^"parentNode":Ӷ322836,253,trueӺ°°°,^"jQuery321028761460178685332":^°,"sizzle1551958107468":^"undefined":^"parentNode":Ӷ316580,253,trueӺ°°°Ӻ,"text":"Die Welt, die konstruiert ist, ist eine erfahrene Welt, die keinerlei Anspruch auf \"Wahrheit\" im Sinne der Übereinstimmung mit einer ontologischen Welt","category":"Argument","data_creacio":1551174454424°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"N8vvmji8uv","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ15Ӻ","startOffset":0,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ15Ӻ","endOffset":155°Ӻ,"quote":"In the history of knowledge, as in the theory of evolution, people have spoken of “adaptation” and, in doing so, a colossal misunderstanding was generated.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery3210162914505684703452":^°,"sizzle1560439090281":^"undefined":^"parentNode":Ӷ21658,31,trueӺ°°°Ӻ,"text":"","category":"Innovationsdiskurs2","data_creacio":1551172618735°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Nlpplg3gzh","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ15Ӻ","startOffset":0,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ15Ӻ","endOffset":630°Ӻ,"quote":"In the history of knowledge, as in the theory of evolution, people have spoken of “adaptation” and, in doing so, a colossal misunderstanding was generated. If we take seriously the evolutionary way of thinking, it could never be organisms or ideas that adapt to reality, but it is always reality which, by limiting what is possible, inexorably annihilates what is not fit to live. In phylogenesis, as in the history of ideas, “natural selection” does not in any positive sense select the fittest, the sturdiest, the best, or the truest, but it functions negatively, in that it simply lets go under whatever does not pass the test.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321079842167204943542":^°°,^"jQuery321079842167204943542":^°,"sizzle1552300422037":^"undefined":^"parentNode":Ӷ57681,31,trueӺ°°°,^"jQuery321079842167204943542":^°°Ӻ,"text":"\"Durch \"Natürliche Selektion\" werden nicht die Stärksten und Fittesten selektiert, sondern die aussortiert, die den Test der Überlebensfähigkeit nicht überstehen","category":"Argument","data_creacio":1551960671111°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Nt0esta93s","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ22Ӻ","startOffset":731,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ22Ӻ","endOffset":893°Ӻ,"quote":"By taking for granted that knowledge must reflect reality traditional epistemology has created for itself a dilemma that was as inevitable as it was unsolvable.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321054842665956511262":^°°Ӻ,"text":"Dilemma der klassischen Sichtweise ","category":"Rethorische Figur","data_creacio":1551173513426°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Numzp44srj","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ40Ӻ","startOffset":0,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ40Ӻ","endOffset":1372°Ӻ,"quote":"No one uses these conceptual possibilities more skillfully than the professional magician. During a performance he may, for instance, request a spectator’s ring, toss another ring across the room to his assistant, and then let the stunned spectator find his ring in his own coat pocket. The magic consists in directing the spectators’ perception in such a way that they unwittingly construct an individual identity between the first experience of the ring and the experience of the thrown object. Once that has been done, it would, indeed, require magic to transfer the ring from the assistant to the spectator’s pocket. Another case is that of the red ribbon which the magician cuts into little pieces and then – literally with a flick of his hand – produces once more as one whole piece. \nA similar, often cited example, is the movie film which, depending on the conditions of perception, we see as a sequence of individually different images or as one continuously moving image. Irrespective of any “real” horse that may or may not have trotted somewhere at some time and been filmed while doing so, when the film is presented to us, we ourselves must construct the motion by constituting a continuous change of one horse from the succession of images. The fact that we do that unconsciously can not alter the fact that we have to do it in order to perceive the motion.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321054842665956511262":^°°,^"jQuery321054842665956511262":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Beispiel","data_creacio":1551175704169°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"O62gbw673y","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ19Ӻ","startOffset":825,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ19Ӻ","endOffset":1407°Ӻ,"quote":". Donald Campbell, who has provided an excellent survey of proponents of “evolutionary epistemology” since Darwin, writes: “The controversial issue is the conceptual inclusion of the real world, defining the problem of knowledge as the fit of data and theory to that real world.”12 In his conclusion he then declares that the evolutionary epistemology, which he and Karl Popper represent, “is fully compatible with an advocacy of the goals of realism and objectivity in science.” But the theory of which he provided an extremely lucid exposition, points in the opposite direction.13","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321054842665956511262":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Wissenschaftliche Referenz","data_creacio":1551173464998°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Ohygf3hivn","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ30Ӻ","startOffset":0,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ30Ӻ","endOffset":234°Ӻ,"quote":"Our main question was how it might come about that we experience a relatively stable and reliable world in spite of the fact that we are unable to ascribe stability, regularity, or any other perceived property to an objective reality.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321054842665956511262":^°°,^"jQuery321054842665956511262":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Wissenschaftliche Fragestellung","data_creacio":1551174209939°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Oo2fdu92ea","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ35Ӻ","startOffset":0,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ35Ӻ","endOffset":644°Ӻ,"quote":"If, however, as Alcmaeon already suggested, the human activity of knowing cannot lead to a certain and true picture of the world but only to conjectural interpretation, then that activity can be viewed as the creating of keys with whose help man unlocks paths towards the goals he chooses. That means that the second question we asked at the end of the preceding section, namely, why a cognitive activity should take place, is inextricably connected with the first one: because the success of a key does not depend on finding a lock into which it might fit, but solely on whether or not it opens the way to the particular goal we want to reach.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321028761460178685332":^°°,^"jQuery321028761460178685332":^°°,^"jQuery321028761460178685332":^°°,^"jQuery321028761460178685332":^°°,^"jQuery321028761460178685332":^°°,^"jQuery321028761460178685332":^°°Ӻ,"text":"Der Erfolg eines Schlüssels hängt nicht davon ab, ob ein Schloss gefunden wird, in das er passt, sonndern nur davon, ob er den Weg zu einem bestimmten Ziel öffnet. ","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Argument","data_creacio":1551966076341°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Ow2des8aoy","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ30Ӻ","startOffset":608,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ30Ӻ","endOffset":796°Ӻ,"quote":"the world that is constructed is an experiential world that consists of experiences and makes no claim whatsoever about “truth” in the sense of correspondence with an ontological reality.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321054842665956511262":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung","data_creacio":1551174242322°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"P2rwrijst5","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ17Ӻ","startOffset":0,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ17Ӻ","endOffset":1408°Ӻ,"quote":"These considerations fit the basic problem of the theory of knowledge equally well. Quite generally, our knowledge is useful, relevant, viable, or however we want to call the positive end of the scale of evaluation, if it stands up to experience and enables us to make predictions and to bring about or avoid, as the case may be, certain phenomena (i.e., appearances, events, experiences). If knowledge does not serve that purpose, it becomes questionable, unreliable, useless, and is eventually devaluated as superstition. That is to say, from the pragmatic point of view, we consider ideas, theories, and “laws of nature” as structures which are constantly exposed to our experiential world (from which we derived them), and they either hold up or they do not. Any cognitive structure that serves its purpose in our time, therefore, proves no more and no less than just that – namely, given the circumstances we have experienced (and determined by experiencing them), it has done what was expected of it. Logically, that gives us no clue as to how the “objective” world might be; it merely means that we know one viable way to a goal that we have chosen under specific circumstances in our experiential world. It tells us nothing – and cannot tell us anything – about how many other ways there might be, or how that experience which we consider the goal might be connected to a world beyond our experience.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321028761460178685332":^°°,^"jQuery321028761460178685332":^°°,^"jQuery321028761460178685332":^°°,^"jQuery321028761460178685332":^°°,^"jQuery321028761460178685332":^°°,^"jQuery321028761460178685332":^°°,^"jQuery321028761460178685332":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse","data_creacio":1551962178265°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"P9zxwcufnk","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ23Ӻ","startOffset":0,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ24Ӻ","endOffset":188°Ӻ,"quote":"If knowledge is to be a description or image of the world as such, we need a criterion that might enable us to judge when our descriptions or images are “right” or “true.” Thus, with the scenario in which man is born into a ready-made independent world as a “discoverer” with the task of exploring and “knowing” that reality in the truest possible fashion, with this scenario the path of skepticism is there from the outset. The notion of “appearance” and “semblance” which, according to Xenophanes attaches to all human knowledge, was elaborated and applied above all to perception by Pyrrho’s school and, later, by Sextus Empiricus; and the unanswerable question whether, or to what extent, any picture our senses “convey” might correspond to the “objective” reality is still today the crux of all theory of knowledge. Sextus used, among other things, an apple as an example. To our senses it appears smooth, scented, sweet, and yellow – but it is far from self-evident that the real apple possesses these properties, just as it is not at all obvious that it does not possess other properties as well, properties that are simply not perceived by our senses.16 \nThe question is unanswerable, because no matter what we do, we can check our perceptions only by means of other perceptions, but never with the apple as it might be before we perceive it.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321028761460178685332":^°,"sizzle1551958107468":^"undefined":^"parentNode":Ӷ298099,253,trueӺ°°°,^"jQuery321028761460178685332":^°°,^"jQuery321028761460178685332":^°°,^"jQuery321028761460178685332":^°,"sizzle1551958107468":^"undefined":^"parentNode":Ӷ297797,253,trueӺ°°°Ӻ,"text":"Wir können unsere Wahrnehmung nur durch den Vergleich mit anderen Wahrnehmungen prüfen, aber nie mit dem Objekt wie es sein könnte, bevor wir es wahrnehmen","category":"Argument","data_creacio":1551173653295°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Pughfc3e56","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ16Ӻ","startOffset":0,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ16Ӻ","endOffset":474°Ӻ,"quote":"More important still is the epistemological aspect of the analogy. In spite of the often misleading assertions of ethologists, the structure of behavior of living organisms can never serve as a basis for conclusions concerning an “objective” world, i.e., a world as it might be prior to experience.8 The reason for this, according to the theory of evolution, is that there is no causal link between that world and the survival capacity of biological structures or behaviors.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321028761460178685332":^°°,^"jQuery321028761460178685332":^°°,^"jQuery321028761460178685332":^°°Ӻ,"text":"Es gibt keinen Zusammenhang zwischen den \"objektiven\" Welt und der Überlebensfähigkeit biologischer Strukturen und Verhaltensweisen. ","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Argument","data_creacio":1551961059877°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Q7cxrlzqk8","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ36Ӻ","startOffset":0,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ36Ӻ","endOffset":486°Ӻ,"quote":"Constructivism necessarily begins with the (intuitively confirmed) assumption that all cognitive activity takes place within the experiential world of a goal-directed consciousness. Goal-directedness, in this context has, of course, nothing to do with goals in an “external” reality. The goals that are involved here arise for no other reason than this: a cognitive organism evaluates its experiences, and because it evaluates them, it tends to repeat certain ones and to avoid others.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321054842665956511262":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse","data_creacio":1551174758386°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Q9czaceqbg","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ11Ӻ","startOffset":0,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ11Ӻ","endOffset":700°Ӻ,"quote":"In everyday English, that conceptual opposition can be brought out quite clearly by pitting the words “match” and “fit” against one another in certain contexts. The metaphysical realist looks for knowledge that matches reality in the same sense as you might look for paint to match the color that is already on the wall that you have to repair. In the epistemologist’s case it is, of course, not color that concerns him, but he is, nevertheless, concerned with some kind of “homomorphism,” which is to say, an equivalence of relations, sequence, or characteristic structure – something, in other words, that he can consider the same, because only then could he say that his knowledge is of the world.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321028761460178685332":^°°,^"jQuery321028761460178685332":^°°,^"jQuery321028761460178685332":^°°,^"jQuery321028761460178685332":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse","data_creacio":1551959610705°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Qgaf10vi1r","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ24Ӻ","startOffset":38,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ24Ӻ","endOffset":188°Ӻ,"quote":"no matter what we do, we can check our perceptions only by means of other perceptions, but never with the apple as it might be before we perceive it.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321054842665956511262":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung","data_creacio":1551173635785°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Qihsu8gwui","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ16Ӻ","startOffset":369,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ16Ӻ","endOffset":477°Ӻ,"quote":"there is no causal link between that world and the survival capacity of biological structures or behaviors.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321054842665956511262":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung","data_creacio":1551173004272°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"R7f8zluj3o","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ8Ӻ","startOffset":973,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ8Ӻ","endOffset":1643°Ӻ,"quote":"The philosopher of science, Hilary Putnam, has recently formulated it like this: “It is impossible to find a philosopher before Kant (and after the pre-Socratics) who was not a metaphysical realist, at least about what he took to be basic or unreducible assertions.”3 Putnam explains that statement by saying that, during those 2,000 years, philosophers certainly disagreed in their views about what really exists, but their conception of truth was always the same, in that it was tied to the notion of objective validity. A metaphysical realist, thus, is one who insists that we may call something “true” only if it corresponds to an independent, “objective” reality.4","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321054842665956511262":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Wissenschaftliche Referenz","data_creacio":1551171310091°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Rah03neh8r","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ14Ӻ","startOffset":127,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ14Ӻ","endOffset":472°Ӻ,"quote":"Just a the environment places constraints on the living organism (biological structures) and eliminates all variants that in some way transgress the limits within which they are possible or “viable,” so the experiential world, be it that of everyday life or of the laboratory, constitutes the testing ground for our ideas (cognitive structures).","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321079842167204943542":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung","data_creacio":1552301208460°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Rnndq00iqs","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ12Ӻ","startOffset":0,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ12Ӻ","endOffset":443°Ӻ,"quote":"If, on the other hand, we say that something fits, we have in mind a different relation. A key fits if it opens the lock. The fit describes a capacity of the key, not of the lock. Thanks to professional burglars, we know only too well that there are many keys that are shaped quite differently from ours but nevertheless unlock our doors. The metaphor is crude, but it serves quite well to bring into relief the difference I want to explicate.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321028761460178685332":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Metapher","data_creacio":1551959648794°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Sa3tq5rvyh","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ13Ӻ","startOffset":0,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ13Ӻ","endOffset":623°Ӻ,"quote":"This is the sense in which the word “fit” applies to Darwin’s and neo-Darwinist theories of evolution. Unfortunately, Darwin himself used the expression “survival of the fittest.” In doing that, he prepared the way or the misguided notion that, on the basis of his theory, one could consider certain things fitter than fit, and that among those there could even be a fittest.7 But in a theory in which survival is the only criterion for the selection of species, there are only two possibilities: either a species fits its environment (including the other species), or it does not; i.e., it either survives, or it dies out.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321079842167204943542":^°°,^"jQuery321079842167204943542":^°°Ӻ,"text":"Entweder eine Art passt zu ihrer Umgebung oder sie passt nicht, d.h. sie überlebt entweder, oder sie stirbt. ","order":"Ggav31h7bl","category":"Argument","data_creacio":1552301053236°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Syb25gtvgg","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ17Ӻ","startOffset":0,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ17Ӻ","endOffset":1517°Ӻ,"quote":"These considerations fit the basic problem of the theory of knowledge equally well. Quite generally, our knowledge is useful, relevant, viable, or however we want to call the positive end of the scale of evaluation, if it stands up to experience and enables us to make predictions and to bring about or avoid, as the case may be, certain phenomena (i.e., appearances, events, experiences). If knowledge does not serve that purpose, it becomes questionable, unreliable, useless, and is eventually devaluated as superstition. That is to say, from the pragmatic point of view, we consider ideas, theories, and “laws of nature” as structures which are constantly exposed to our experiential world (from which we derived them), and they either hold up or they do not. Any cognitive structure that serves its purpose in our time, therefore, proves no more and no less than just that – namely, given the circumstances we have experienced (and determined by experiencing them), it has done what was expected of it. Logically, that gives us no clue as to how the “objective” world might be; it merely means that we know one viable way to a goal that we have chosen under specific circumstances in our experiential world. It tells us nothing – and cannot tell us anything – about how many other ways there might be, or how that experience which we consider the goal might be connected to a world beyond our experience. The only aspect of that “real” world that actually enters into the realm of experience, are its constraints;","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321028761460178685332":^°°,^"jQuery321028761460178685332":^°°,^"jQuery321028761460178685332":^°°,^"jQuery321028761460178685332":^°°,^"jQuery321028761460178685332":^°°,^"jQuery321028761460178685332":^°°,^"jQuery321028761460178685332":^°°,^"jQuery321028761460178685332":^°°Ӻ,"text":"Der einzige Aspekt der \"realen\" Welt, der tatsächlich in den Bereich der Erfahrung eintritt, sind die Einschränkungen dieser Welt. ","category":"Argument","data_creacio":1551962281000°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"T7vq8ir48k","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ13Ӻ","startOffset":499,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ13Ӻ","endOffset":625°Ӻ,"quote":"either a species fits its environment (including the other species), or it does not; i.e., it either survives, or it dies out.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321054842665956511262":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung","data_creacio":1551171466395°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Tf2mdlposf","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ30Ӻ","startOffset":1126,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ30Ӻ","endOffset":1377°Ӻ,"quote":"In other words, experience as well as all objects of experience are under all circumstances the result of our ways and means of experiencing, and are necessarily structured and determined by space and time and the other categories derived from these.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321054842665956511262":^°°,^"jQuery321054842665956511262":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung","data_creacio":1551174354093°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Uchl82iy4v","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ14Ӻ","startOffset":473,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ14Ӻ","endOffset":1146°Ӻ,"quote":"That applies to the very first regularities the infant establishes in its barely differentiated experience, it applies to the rules with whose help adults try to manage their common sense world, and it applies to the hypotheses, the theories, and the so-called “natural laws” that scientists formulate in their endeavor to glean lasting stability and order from the widest possible range of experiences. In the light of further experience, regularities, rules of thumb, and theories either prove themselves reliable or they do not (unless we introduce the concept of probability – in which case we are explicitly relinquishing the condition that knowledge must be certain).","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321079842167204943542":^°°,^"jQuery321079842167204943542":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse","data_creacio":1552301220042°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Uhvvo93086","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ41Ӻ","startOffset":209,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ41Ӻ","endOffset":799°Ӻ,"quote":"Two eggs may be considered the same because of their shape, size, or color, or because they come from the same hen; but there will be a pungent difference between them if one was laid yesterday and the other six weeks ago. A fieldmouse and an elephant are different in many ways, but they will be considered the same whenever we want to distinguish mammals from other animals. Finally, all eggs, all animals, and indeed all objects that I have ever seen or imagined, are the same in that one respect that I have isolated them as bounded, unitary objects in the total field of my experience.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321054842665956511262":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Beispiel","data_creacio":1551175774138°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Ul5vmn52ua","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ33Ӻ","startOffset":0,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ33Ӻ","endOffset":678°Ӻ,"quote":"In traditional theories of knowledge, the activity of “knowing” is taken as a matter of course, an activity that requires no justification and functions as an initial constituent. The knowing subject is conceived of as a “pure” entity in the sense that it is essentially unimpeded by biological or psychological conditions. The radical constructivist epistemology quite deliberately breaks that conventional framework and commits what professional philosophers, more or less disparagingly, dismiss as “psychologism.” The deliberations that have led me to this somewhat iconoclastic step derive from what was said in the first two sections as soon as one considers them jointly.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321054842665956511262":^°°Ӻ,"text":"Ablösen klassischer Denkweisen","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Rethorische Figur","data_creacio":1551174570911°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Um550kiapu","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ23Ӻ","startOffset":0,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ23Ӻ","endOffset":820°Ӻ,"quote":"If knowledge is to be a description or image of the world as such, we need a criterion that might enable us to judge when our descriptions or images are “right” or “true.” Thus, with the scenario in which man is born into a ready-made independent world as a “discoverer” with the task of exploring and “knowing” that reality in the truest possible fashion, with this scenario the path of skepticism is there from the outset. The notion of “appearance” and “semblance” which, according to Xenophanes attaches to all human knowledge, was elaborated and applied above all to perception by Pyrrho’s school and, later, by Sextus Empiricus; and the unanswerable question whether, or to what extent, any picture our senses “convey” might correspond to the “objective” reality is still today the crux of all theory of knowledge.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321054842665956511262":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse","data_creacio":1551173613824°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Uy0jz8j8jj","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ30Ӻ","startOffset":1377,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ30Ӻ","endOffset":1596°Ӻ,"quote":"The processing of the raw material in Kant’s system is governed automatically by space and time (without which no experience would be possible) and the other categories which, for that very reason, are called a priori.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321054842665956511262":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse","data_creacio":1551174373144°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Vnu6kddzd3","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ30Ӻ","startOffset":235,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ30Ӻ","endOffset":608°Ӻ,"quote":"Vico does not answer that question; rather, he makes it superfluous and meaningless. If, as he says, the world that we experience and get to know is necessarily constructed by ourselves, it should not surprise us that it seems relatively stable. To appreciate this, it is necessary to keep in mind that the most fundamental trait of constructivist epistemology, i.e., that","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321054842665956511262":^°°,^"jQuery321054842665956511262":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse","data_creacio":1551174232251°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Vywz07foug","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ30Ӻ","startOffset":796,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ30Ӻ","endOffset":1592°Ӻ,"quote":"Hence, Vico’s position is in that respect similar to that of Kant, who says; “Nature, therefore … is the collective conception of all objects of experience.”23 For Kant, it is the “raw material of sensory impression” which “the mind’s activity ... processes so that it becomes knowledge of objects that we call experience.” 24 In other words, experience as well as all objects of experience are under all circumstances the result of our ways and means of experiencing, and are necessarily structured and determined by space and time and the other categories derived from these. The processing of the raw material in Kant’s system is governed automatically by space and time (without which no experience would be possible) and the other categories which, for that very reason, are called a priori.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321028761460178685332":^°°,^"jQuery321028761460178685332":^°°,^"jQuery321028761460178685332":^°°,^"jQuery321028761460178685332":^°°Ӻ,"text":"Erfahrungen und alle Objekte der Erfahrung sind unter allen Umständen das Resultat unserer Wege und Mittel des Erlebens","category":"Argument","data_creacio":1551964319124°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"W0hci79pef","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ14Ӻ","startOffset":127,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ14Ӻ","endOffset":1146°Ӻ,"quote":"Just a the environment places constraints on the living organism (biological structures) and eliminates all variants that in some way transgress the limits within which they are possible or “viable,” so the experiential world, be it that of everyday life or of the laboratory, constitutes the testing ground for our ideas (cognitive structures). That applies to the very first regularities the infant establishes in its barely differentiated experience, it applies to the rules with whose help adults try to manage their common sense world, and it applies to the hypotheses, the theories, and the so-called “natural laws” that scientists formulate in their endeavor to glean lasting stability and order from the widest possible range of experiences. In the light of further experience, regularities, rules of thumb, and theories either prove themselves reliable or they do not (unless we introduce the concept of probability – in which case we are explicitly relinquishing the condition that knowledge must be certain).","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321079842167204943542":^°°,^"jQuery321079842167204943542":^°°,^"jQuery321079842167204943542":^°°Ӻ,"text":"So wie Umwelt dem lebenden Organismus Grenzen setzt und beseitigt, was die Grenze überschreitet, so bildet die Erfahrungswelt die Grenzen für unsere Ideen (kognitiven Strukturen) ","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Argument","data_creacio":1552301507420°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Wkqtj3ja46","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/blockquoteӶ2Ӻ/pӶ1Ӻ","startOffset":0,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/blockquoteӶ2Ӻ/pӶ1Ӻ","endOffset":276°Ӻ,"quote":"As God’s truth is what God comes to know as he creates and assembles it, so human truth is what man comes to know as he builds it shaping it by his actions. Therefore science (scientia) is the knowledge (cognitio) of origins, of the ways and the manner how things are made.19","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321054842665956511262":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Wissenschaftliche Referenz","data_creacio":1551173755689°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Wqabhguxqj","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ25Ӻ","startOffset":115,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ25Ӻ","endOffset":647°Ӻ,"quote":"it undermines any representation of objective structure in the real world and, thus, inevitably raises the question why and, above all, how it comes about that we search for and can also find a structure in our experiential world, when such a structure may not be given by reality. In other words, if Kant’s statement is correct and our experience can teach us nothing about the nature of things in themselves,Ӷ18Ӻ how, then, can we explain that we nevertheless experience a world that is in many respects quite stable and reliable?","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321054842665956511262":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Wissenschaftliche Fragestellung","data_creacio":1551173724384°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Wqc64cmhap","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ16Ӻ","startOffset":0,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ16Ӻ","endOffset":366°Ӻ,"quote":"More important still is the epistemological aspect of the analogy. In spite of the often misleading assertions of ethologists, the structure of behavior of living organisms can never serve as a basis for conclusions concerning an “objective” world, i.e., a world as it might be prior to experience.8 The reason for this, according to the theory of evolution, is that","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321028761460178685332":^°°,^"jQuery321028761460178685332":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse","data_creacio":1551960957163°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"X8ecdaba5d","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ15Ӻ","startOffset":156,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ15Ӻ","endOffset":425°Ӻ,"quote":"If we take seriously the evolutionary way of thinking, it could never be organisms or ideas that adapt to reality, but it is always reality which, by limiting what is possible, inexorably annihilates what is not fit to live. In phylogenesis, as in the history of ideas,","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321028761460178685332":^°°,^"jQuery321028761460178685332":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse","data_creacio":1551960638734°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Xa2garp97h","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ40Ӻ","startOffset":0,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ42Ӻ","endOffset":552°Ӻ,"quote":"No one uses these conceptual possibilities more skillfully than the professional magician. During a performance he may, for instance, request a spectator’s ring, toss another ring across the room to his assistant, and then let the stunned spectator find his ring in his own coat pocket. The magic consists in directing the spectators’ perception in such a way that they unwittingly construct an individual identity between the first experience of the ring and the experience of the thrown object. Once that has been done, it would, indeed, require magic to transfer the ring from the assistant to the spectator’s pocket. Another case is that of the red ribbon which the magician cuts into little pieces and then – literally with a flick of his hand – produces once more as one whole piece. \nA similar, often cited example, is the movie film which, depending on the conditions of perception, we see as a sequence of individually different images or as one continuously moving image. Irrespective of any “real” horse that may or may not have trotted somewhere at some time and been filmed while doing so, when the film is presented to us, we ourselves must construct the motion by constituting a continuous change of one horse from the succession of images. The fact that we do that unconsciously can not alter the fact that we have to do it in order to perceive the motion. \nNo less constructed are the judgments of sameness and difference in the realm of perceptual objects. As I indicated above, “sameness” is always the result of an examination with regard to specific properties. Two eggs may be considered the same because of their shape, size, or color, or because they come from the same hen; but there will be a pungent difference between them if one was laid yesterday and the other six weeks ago. A fieldmouse and an elephant are different in many ways, but they will be considered the same whenever we want to distinguish mammals from other animals. Finally, all eggs, all animals, and indeed all objects that I have ever seen or imagined, are the same in that one respect that I have isolated them as bounded, unitary objects in the total field of my experience. In these cases, as in all conceivable ones, it should be clear that the criteria by means of which sameness or difference is established are criteria that are created and chosen by the judging, experiencing subject and cannot be ascribed to an experiencer-independent world. \nFor an understanding of radical constructivism it is even more important to appreciate the subject’s active operating that gives rise to regularities and invariances in the experiential world. Both regularity and constancy presuppose repeated experience, and repetition can be established only on the basis of a comparison that yields a judgment of sameness. Sameness, however, as we have seen, is always relative: Objects, and experiences in general, are the “same” with respect to the properties or components that have been checked in a comparison.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321028761460178685332":^°°,^"jQuery321028761460178685332":^°°,^"jQuery321028761460178685332":^°°,^"jQuery321028761460178685332":^°°,^"jQuery321028761460178685332":^°°,^"jQuery321028761460178685332":^°°Ӻ,"text":"Gleichheit ist immer relativ","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Argument","data_creacio":1551968695671°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Xrm4s8l4d2","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ16Ӻ","startOffset":613,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ16Ӻ","endOffset":997°Ӻ,"quote":"The organisms that we find alive at any particular moment of evolutionary history, and their ways of behaving, are the result of cumulative accidental variations, and the influence of the environment was and is, under all circumstances, limited to the elimination of non-viable variants. Hence, the environment can, at best, be held responsible for extinction, but never for survival.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321028761460178685332":^°°,^"jQuery321028761460178685332":^°°Ӻ,"text":"Die Umwelt kann bestenfalls für das Aussterben verantwortlich gemacht werden, aber nie für das Überleben","order":"Ahkgpchgv7","category":"Argument","data_creacio":1551961334443°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Yrlpe36f87","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ22Ӻ","startOffset":524,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ22Ӻ","endOffset":729°Ӻ,"quote":"As Maturana has made particularly clear; “The a priori assumption that objective knowledge constitutes a description of that which is known … begs the questions, ‘What is to know? and How do we know?’.”15","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321054842665956511262":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Wissenschaftliche Referenz","data_creacio":1551173498519°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Zgid70c2rs","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ17Ӻ","startOffset":1409,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ17Ӻ","endOffset":1517°Ӻ,"quote":"The only aspect of that “real” world that actually enters into the realm of experience, are its constraints;","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321028761460178685332":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung","data_creacio":1551962168405°
Annotationen:Abstraction, Re-Presentation, and Reflection: An Interpretation of Experience and of Piaget’s Approach/B7j8rehn9c +
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"B7j8rehn9c","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ8Ӻ","startOffset":907,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ8Ӻ","endOffset":1230°Ӻ,"quote":"A familiar motor pattern is once more a good example: we may be well able to re-present to ourselves a tennis stroke or a golf swing, but few, if any, would claim to have a “conceptualized understanding” of the sequence of elementary motor acts that are involved in such an abstraction of a delicately coordinated activity.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321049788301677932092":^°°,^"jQuery321049788301677932092":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Beispiel3","data_creacio":1563869531271°
Annotationen:Abstraction, Re-Presentation, and Reflection: An Interpretation of Experience and of Piaget’s Approach/Bfg3odrse4 +
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Bfg3odrse4","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ","startOffset":282,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ","endOffset":503°Ӻ,"quote":"In this requirement, representation is similar to recognition. Both often work hand in hand, e.g., when one recognizes a Volkswagen though one can see only part of its back but is nevertheless able to visualize the whole.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321099300528189935382":^°,"sizzle1563866641689":^"undefined":^"parentNode":Ӷ117981,29,trueӺ°°°,^"jQuery321099300528189935382":^°,"sizzle1563866641689":^"undefined":^"parentNode":Ӷ119700,29,trueӺ°°°,^"jQuery321099300528189935382":^°,"sizzle1563866641689":^"undefined":^"parentNode":Ӷ119608,29,trueӺ°°°,^"jQuery321099300528189935382":^°,"sizzle1563866641689":^"undefined":^"parentNode":Ӷ119430,29,trueӺ°°°Ӻ,"text":"In this requirement, representation is similar to recognition. Both often work hand in hand, e.g., when one recognizes\na Volkswagen though one can see only part of its back but is nevertheless able to visualize the whole.","category":"Beispiel3","data_creacio":1563867746990°
Annotationen:Abstraction, Re-Presentation, and Reflection: An Interpretation of Experience and of Piaget’s Approach/Bgvvdmhivy +
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Bgvvdmhivy","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ2Ӻ","startOffset":1260,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ2Ӻ","endOffset":1590°Ӻ,"quote":"Berkeley, I would say, was quite right when he maintained that every time we imagine an apple, it has to have a specific color, but he was wrong to claim that we could, therefore, not have a general idea in our heads that allows us to recognize as apples items that differ in some respects, but nevertheless belong to that class.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321099300528189935382":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563867889995°
Annotationen:Abstraction, Re-Presentation, and Reflection: An Interpretation of Experience and of Piaget’s Approach/Bsgnvh5vo1 +
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Bsgnvh5vo1","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ6Ӻ","startOffset":2365,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ6Ӻ","endOffset":3064°Ӻ,"quote":"An example may help to clarify what I am trying to say. If, in someone’s account of a European journey, you read or hear the name “Paris”, you may register it as a pointer to a variety of experiential “referents” with which you hapen to have associated it—e.g., a particular point on the map of Europe, your first glimpse of the Eiffel Tower, the Mona Lisa in the Louvre— but if the account of the journey immediately moves to London, you would be unlikely to implement fully any one of them as an actual re-presentation. At any subsequent moment, however, if the context or the conversation required it, you could return to the mention of “Paris” and develop one of the associated re-presentations.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321099300528189935382":^°°Ӻ,"text":"An example may help to clarify what I am trying to say. If, in someone’s account of a European journey, you read or hear the name “Paris”, you may register it as a pointer to a variety of experiential “referents” with which you hapen to have associated it—e.g., a particular point on the map of Europe, your first glimpse of the Eiffel Tower, the Mona Lisa in the Louvre— but if the account of the journey immediately moves to London, you would be unlikely to implement fully any one of them as an actual re-presentation. At any subsequent moment, however, if the context or the conversation required it, you could return to the mention of “Paris” and develop one of the associated re-presentations.","category":"Beispiel3","data_creacio":1563868820483°
Annotationen:Abstraction, Re-Presentation, and Reflection: An Interpretation of Experience and of Piaget’s Approach/Butixz00kz +
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Butixz00kz","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ9Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ9Ӻ/pӶ1Ӻ","endOffset":396°Ӻ,"quote":"The cumulative result of the minute investigations contained in these two volumes enabled Piaget to come up with an extremely sophisticated description of the mutual interaction between the construction of successful schemes and the construction of abstracted understandings, an interaction that eventually leads to accommodations and to finding solutions to problems in the re-presentational mode, i.e., without having to have run into them on the level of sensory-motor experience. In this context, one further thing must be added. In the earlier sections, I discussed the fact that re-presentation follows upon recognition and that the “pointing” function of symbols follows as the result of familiarity with the symbols’ power to bring forth re- presentations that are based on empirical abstractions. As the examples I gave of abstracted motor patterns should make clear, symbols can be used, simply to point to such patterns, in which case the re-presentation of action can be curtailed, provided the subject has consciously conceptualized the action and knows how to re-present it. I now want to emphasize that this pointing function of symbols makes possible a way of mental operating that requires conscious conceptualization and, as a result, gives more power to the symbols. Once reflective thought can be applied to the kind of abstraction Piaget ascribed to Aristotle (cf. passage quoted above), there will be awareness not only of what is being operated on but also of the operations that are being carried out. Piaget suggested this in an earlier context:\nA form is indissociable from its content in perception but can be manipulated independently of its content in the realm of operations, in which even forms devoid of content can be constructed and manipulated. ...logico-mathematical operations allow the construction of arrangements which are independent of content ... pure forms ... simply based on symbols. (Piaget, 1969; p. 288; my emphasis.)","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321049788301677932092":^°°,^"jQuery321049788301677932092":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563869643205°
Annotationen:Abstraction, Re-Presentation, and Reflection: An Interpretation of Experience and of Piaget’s Approach/Camouqfaz8 +
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Camouqfaz8","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ5Ӻ","startOffset":4330,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ5Ӻ","endOffset":5100°Ӻ,"quote":"Any re-presentation, be it of an experiential “thing” or of a program of actions or operations, requires some sensory material for its execution. That basic condition, I believe, is what confirmed Berkeley in his argument against the “existence” of abstracted general ideas, for it is indeed the case that every time we re-present to ourselves such a general idea, it turns into a particular one because its implementation requires the kind of material from which it was abstracted. This last condition could be reformulated by saying that there has to be some isomorphism between the present construct and what it is intended to reconstruct. Clearly, this isomorphism does not concern a “thing-in-itself” but precisely those aspects one wants to or happens to focus on.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321099300528189935382":^°°Ӻ,"text":"Any re-presentation, be it of an experiential “thing” or of a program of actions or operations, requires some sensory material for its execution. That basic condition, I believe, is what confirmed Berkeley in his argument against the “existence” of abstracted general ideas, for it is indeed the case that every time we re-present to ourselves such a general idea, it turns into a particular one because its implementation requires the kind of material from which it was abstracted. This last condition could be reformulated by saying that there has to be some isomorphism between the present construct and what it is intended to reconstruct. Clearly, this isomorphism does not concern a “thing-in-itself” but precisely those aspects one wants to or happens to focus on.","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1563867546874°
Annotationen:Abstraction, Re-Presentation, and Reflection: An Interpretation of Experience and of Piaget’s Approach/D3z4577hkq +
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"D3z4577hkq","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ6Ӻ","startOffset":1846,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ6Ӻ","endOffset":2364°Ӻ,"quote":"By this I mean that, as particular users of the word become more proficient, they no longer need to actually produce the associated conceptual structures as a completely implemented re-presentation, but can simply register the occurrence of the word as a kind of “pointer” to be followed if needed at a later moment. I see this as analogous to the capability of recognizing objects on the basis of a partial perceptual construction. In the context of symbolic activities, this capability is both subtle and important.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321049788301677932092":^°°Ӻ,"text":" By this I mean that, as particular users of the word become more proficient, they no longer need to actually produce the associated conceptual structures as a completely implemented re-presentation, but can simply register the occurrence of the word as a kind of “pointer” to be followed if needed at a later moment. I see this as analogous to the capability of recognizing objects on the basis of a partial perceptual construction. In the context of symbolic activities, this capability is both subtle and important.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1563869155481°
Annotationen:Abstraction, Re-Presentation, and Reflection: An Interpretation of Experience and of Piaget’s Approach/Earusgwepw +
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Earusgwepw","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ6Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ6Ӻ","endOffset":1846°Ӻ,"quote":"Re-presentations can be activated by many things. Any element in the present stream of experience may bring forth the re-presentation of a past situation, state, activity, or other construct. This experiential fact was called associaion by Hume and used by Freud for his analyses of neuroses. The ability to associate is systematically exploited by language. To possess a word is to have associated it with a representation of which one believes that it is similar to the re-presentations the word brings forth in other users of the language.(Only naive linguists claim that these re-presentations are shared, in the sense that they are the same for all users of the given word.) In my terminology, a word is used as a symbol,Ӷ10Ӻ only when it brings forth in the user an abstracted generalized re-presentation, not merely a response to a particular situation (cf. von Glasersfeld,1974). Several things, therefore, are indispensable for a word to function as a symbol: (1) the phonemes that compose the word in speech, or the graphic marks that constitute it in writing, must be recognized as that particular item of one’s vocabulary. This ability to recognize, as I suggested earlier, is preliminary to the ability to re-present and produce the word spontaneously. (2) The word/symbol must be associated with a conceptual structure that was abstracted from experience and, at least to some extent, generalized. Here, again, the ability to recognize (i.e. to build up the conceptual structure from available perceptual material) precedes the ability to re-present the structure to oneself spontaneously. Once a word has become operative as a symbol and calls forth the associated meaning as re-presentations chunks of experience that have been isolated (abstracted) and to some extent generalized, its power can be further expanded.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321049788301677932092":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563869162666°
Annotationen:Abstraction, Re-Presentation, and Reflection: An Interpretation of Experience and of Piaget’s Approach/Ko73n1c8n3 +
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Ko73n1c8n3","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ7Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ7Ӻ","endOffset":2417°Ӻ,"quote":"The distinction between form and content has a history as long as Western philosophy and the terms have been used in many different ways. Piaget’s use of the distinction is complicated by the fact that he links it with his use of “observables” (content) and “coordinations” (forms). “The functions of form and content are relative, since every form becomes content for another that comprises it” (Piaget et al., 1977, Vol.II; p.319). This will make sense, only if one recalls that, for Piaget, percepts, observables, and any knowledge of objects, are all the result of a subject’s action and not externally caused effects registered by a passive receiver. In his theory, to perceive, to remember, to re- present, and to coordinate are all dynamic, in the sense that they are activities carried out by a subject that operates on internally available material and produces certain results. A term such as “exogenous”, therefore, must not be interpreted as referring to a physical outside relative to a physical organism, but rather as referring to something that is external relative to the process in which it becomes involved. Observation and re-presentation have two things in common: (1) they operate on items which, relative to the process at hand, are considered given. The present process takes them as elements and coordinates them as “content” into a new “form” or “structure”; and (2) the resulting new products can be taken as initial “givens” by a future process of structuring, relative to which they then become “content”. Thus, once a process is achieved, its results may be considered “observables” or “exogenous” relative to a subsequent process of coordination or a higher level of analysis. As Piaget saw, this might seem to lead to an infinite regress (Piaget et al., 1977, Vol.II; p.306), but he put forth at least two arguments to counter this notion. One of them emerges from his conception of scientific analysis. Very early in his career, he saw this analysis as a cyclical program in which certain elements abstracted by one branch of science become the “givens” for coordination and abstraction in another. In an early paper (Piaget, 1929) and almost forty years later in his “classification of the sciences” (Piaget, 1967), he formulated this mutual interdependence of the scientific disciplines as a circle: Biology—Psychology—Mathematics—Physics, and looping back to Biology.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321049788301677932092":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563869425631°
Annotationen:Abstraction, Re-Presentation, and Reflection: An Interpretation of Experience and of Piaget’s Approach/Lt82ojh4wl +
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Lt82ojh4wl","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ3Ӻ","startOffset":242,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ3Ӻ","endOffset":972°Ӻ,"quote":"That is, instead of specific particulars it must contain variables. Yet it is clear that, in order to “imagine” for instance an apple, we have to decide what color it is to be, because we cannot possibly visualize it red or green or yellow at one and the same time. Berkeley, therefore, was right when he observed that whenever we re-present a concept to ourselves, we find that it is a particular thing and not a general idea. What he did not realize was that the abstraction necessary to recognize things of a kind, does not automatically turn into an image that can be re-presented. The situation, however, is somewhat complicated by our ability to use symbols, but before considering this I want to deal with re- presentation.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321099300528189935382":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563867452407°
Annotationen:Abstraction, Re-Presentation, and Reflection: An Interpretation of Experience and of Piaget’s Approach/Ndkqy9lz7e +
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Ndkqy9lz7e","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ","startOffset":900,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ","endOffset":976°Ӻ,"quote":"Reflecting upon experiences is clearly not the same as having an experience.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321099300528189935382":^°°Ӻ,"text":"Reflecting upon experiences is clearly not the same as having an experience.","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1563866684834°
Annotationen:Abstraction, Re-Presentation, and Reflection: An Interpretation of Experience and of Piaget’s Approach/Nge0d0b7ts +
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Nge0d0b7ts","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ","startOffset":199,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ","endOffset":900°Ӻ,"quote":"Indeed, we would take it for granted that under these circumstances any normal person could make a relevant judgment. We cannot observe how such a judgment is made. But we can hypothesize some of the steps that seem necessary to make it. The sensations that accompanied the eating of the first apple would have to be remembered, at least until the question is heard.Ӷ5Ӻ Then they would have to be re- presented and compared (in regard to whatever the person called “sweetness”) with the sensations accompanying the later bite from the second apple. This re-presenting and comparing is a way of operating that is different from the processes of sensation that supplied the material for the comparison.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321099300528189935382":^°°,^"jQuery321099300528189935382":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563867994957°
Annotationen:Abstraction, Re-Presentation, and Reflection: An Interpretation of Experience and of Piaget’s Approach/P55yeeak0x +
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"P55yeeak0x","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ","endOffset":281°Ӻ,"quote":"No act of mental re-presentation, which in this context of conceptual analysis means neither less nor more than the re-generation of a prior experience, would be possible if the original generation of the experience had not left some mark to guide its reconstruction.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321099300528189935382":^°°Ӻ,"text":"No act of mental re-presentation, which in this context of conceptual analysis means neither less nor more than the re-generation of a prior experience, would be possible if the original generation of the experience had not left some mark to guide its reconstruction.","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1563867644656°
Annotationen:Abstraction, Re-Presentation, and Reflection: An Interpretation of Experience and of Piaget’s Approach/Qfb05d1191 +
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Qfb05d1191","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ","startOffset":504,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ","endOffset":1746°Ӻ,"quote":"The ability to recognize a thing in one’s perceptual field, however, does not necessarily bring with it the ability to re-present it spontaneously. We have all had occasion to notice this. Our experiential world contains many things which, although we recognize them when we see them, are not available to us when we want to visualize them. There are, for instance, people whom we would recognize as acquaintances when we meet them, but were we asked to describe them when they are not in our visual field, we would be unable to recall an adequate image of their appearance. The fact that recognition developmentally precedes the ability to re-present an experiential item spontaneously, has been observed in many areas. It is probably best known and documented as the difference between what linguists call “passive” and “active” vocabulary. The difference is conspicuous in second-language learners but it is noticeable also in anyone’s first language: a good many words one knows when one hears or reads them are not available when one is speaking or writing. This lag suggests that having abstracted a concept that may serve to recognize and categorize a perceptual item is not sufficient to re-present the item to oneself in its absence.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321099300528189935382":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563867813253°
Annotationen:Abstraction, Re-Presentation, and Reflection: An Interpretation of Experience and of Piaget’s Approach/Rqiu69ztol +
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Rqiu69ztol","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ5Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ5Ӻ","endOffset":1214°Ӻ,"quote":"In this context, the metaphor of “program” may be useful. A program is the fixed itinerary of an activity that can guide and govern the sequence of its re-enactment. But there are two points to be stressed. First, a program may specify the material on which to act, but it does not supply the material; second, a program may specify what acts are to be performed, but it supplies neither the acting agent nor the action. The first of these limitations, I suggest, may account for the fact that to recognize an experiential item requires less effort than to re-present it spontaneously. This would be so, because in re-presentation not only a program of composition is needed, but also the specific sensory components, which must be expressly generated. In recognition, the perceiver merely has to isolate the sensory elements in the sensory manifold. As Berkeley observed, sensory elements are “not creatures of the will” (1710; p.29). Because there are always vastly more sensory elements than the perceiving agent can attend to and use,Ӷ8Ӻ recognition requires the attentional selecting, grouping, and coordinating of sensory material that fits the composition program of the item to be recognized.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321099300528189935382":^°°,^"jQuery321099300528189935382":^°°Ӻ,"text":"In this context, the metaphor of “program” may be useful. A program is the fixed itinerary of an activity that can guide and govern the sequence of its re-enactment. But there are two points to be stressed. First, a program may specify the material on which to act, but it does not supply the material; second, a program may specify what acts are to be performed, but it supplies neither the acting agent nor the action. The first of these limitations, I suggest, may account for the fact that to recognize an experiential item requires less effort than to re-present it spontaneously. This would be so, because in re-presentation not only a program of composition is needed, but also the specific sensory components, which must be expressly generated. In recognition, the perceiver merely has to isolate the sensory elements in the sensory manifold. As Berkeley observed, sensory elements are “not creatures of the will” (1710; p.29). Because there are always vastly more sensory elements than the perceiving agent can attend to and use,Ӷ8Ӻ recognition requires the attentional selecting, grouping, and coordinating of sensory material that fits the composition program of the item to be recognized.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Beispiel3","data_creacio":1563868469024°
Annotationen:Abstraction, Re-Presentation, and Reflection: An Interpretation of Experience and of Piaget’s Approach/Sktb6xjmvl +
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Sktb6xjmvl","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ2Ӻ","startOffset":1590,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ2Ӻ","endOffset":1869°Ӻ,"quote":"Hence I suggest that, pace Berkeley, we are quite able to abstract general ideas from experience and that we do this by substituting a kind of place-holder or variable for some of the properties in the sensory complex we have abstracted from our experiences of particular things.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321099300528189935382":^°°Ӻ,"text":"Hence I suggest that, pace Berkeley, we are quite able to abstract general ideas from experience and that we do this by substituting a kind of place-holder or variable for some of the properties in the sensory complex we have abstracted from our experiences of particular things.","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1563866721745°
Annotationen:Abstraction, Re-Presentation, and Reflection: An Interpretation of Experience and of Piaget’s Approach/Souryl0w4r +
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Souryl0w4r","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ5Ӻ","startOffset":2477,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ5Ӻ","endOffset":4330°Ӻ,"quote":"(Note that this abstracting and transforming is by no means an easy task for those unaccustomed to map reading.) A program, however, differs from a map in that it explicitly provides instructions about actions and implicitly indicates changes of location through the conventional sequence in which the instructions must be read. (But in the program, too, it is the user’s focus of attention, while reading or implementing the program, that supplies the progressive motion.) Also, unlike a map, a program may contain embedded “subroutines” for walking and turning (i.e. instructions how to act), but no matter how detailed these subroutines might be, they can contain only instructions to act, not the actions themselves. In other words, irrespective of how minutely a program’s instructions have decomposed an activity, they remain static until some agent implements them and adds the dynamics.\nIn carrying out a program in an experiential situation, just as in following a map through an actual landscape, the sensory material in the agent’s perceptual field can supply cues as to the action required at a given point of the procedure. In the re-presentational mode, however, attention cannot focus on actual perceptual material and pick from it cues about what to do next, because the sensory material itself has to be re-presented. A re-presentation—at least when it is a spontaneous one—is wholly self-generated (which is one reason why it is usually easier to find one’s way through a landscape than to draw a reliable map of it.) The increase of difficulty and the concomitant increase of effort involved in the production of conceptual structures when the required sensory material is not available in the present perceptual field, shows itself in all forms of re-presentation and especially in the re-enactment of abstracted programs of action.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321099300528189935382":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563868600085°
Annotationen:Abstraction, Re-Presentation, and Reflection: An Interpretation of Experience and of Piaget’s Approach/Tb4vyjiobf +
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Tb4vyjiobf","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ5Ӻ","startOffset":1735,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ5Ӻ","endOffset":2476°Ӻ,"quote":"With regard to the need for an acting agent, a program is similar to a map. If someone draws a simple map to show you how to get to his house, he essentially indicates a potential path from a place you are presumed to know to the unknown location. The drawing of the path is a graphic representation of the turns that have to be made to accomplish that itinerary, but it does not and could not show what it is to move and what it is to turn right or left. Any user of the map, must supply the motion and the changes of direction with the focus of visual attention while reading the map. Only if one manages to abstract this sequence of motions from the reading activity, can one transform it into physical movement through the mapped region.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321099300528189935382":^°°Ӻ,"text":"With regard to the need for an acting agent, a program is similar to a map. If someone draws a simple map to show you how to get to his house, he essentially indicates a potential path from a place you are presumed to know to the unknown location. The drawing of the path is a graphic representation of the turns that have to be made to accomplish that itinerary, but it does not and could not show what it is to move and what it is to turn right or left. Any user of the map, must supply the motion and the changes of direction with the focus of visual attention while reading the map. Only if one manages to abstract this sequence of motions from the reading activity, can one transform it into physical movement through the mapped region.","category":"Beispiel3","data_creacio":1563868586322°
Annotationen:Abstraction, Re-Presentation, and Reflection: An Interpretation of Experience and of Piaget’s Approach/Tm9j7422k1 +
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Tm9j7422k1","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ","endOffset":198°Ӻ,"quote":"If someone, having just eaten an apple, takes a bite out of a second one, and is asked which of the two tasted sweeter, we should not be surprised that the person could give an answer.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321099300528189935382":^°,"sizzle1563866641689":^"undefined":^"parentNode":Ӷ174441,29,trueӺ°°°,^"jQuery321099300528189935382":^°°Ӻ,"text":"If someone, having just eaten an apple, takes a bite out of a second one, and is asked which of the two tasted sweeter, we should not be surprised that the person could give an answer.","category":"Beispiel3","data_creacio":1563867969807°
Annotationen:Abstraction, Re-Presentation, and Reflection: An Interpretation of Experience and of Piaget’s Approach/Vhyqe3fw79 +
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Vhyqe3fw79","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ2Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ2Ӻ","endOffset":485°Ӻ,"quote":"Berkeley, of course, was aware of the fact that he would apply the name “apple” not only to one unique “thing”, but to countless others that fitted his description in terms of “colour, taste, smell, figure, and consistence”, but to him this arose from the association of the word and it seems that he took the ensuing generalization simply for granted. Had he analysed it the way he analysed other conceptual operations, he might have changed his view about abstraction.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321099300528189935382":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563867882975°
Annotationen:Abstraction, Re-Presentation, and Reflection: An Interpretation of Experience and of Piaget’s Approach/Vop5onvlls +
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Vop5onvlls","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ3Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ3Ӻ","endOffset":241°Ӻ,"quote":"In short, in order to recognize several particular experiential items, in spite of differences they may manifest, as belonging to the same kind, we must have a concept that is flexible enough to allow for a certain variability.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321099300528189935382":^°°Ӻ,"text":"Hence I suggest that, pace Berkeley, we are quite able to abstract general ideas from experience and that we do this by substituting a kind of place-holder or variable for some of the properties in the sensory complex we have abstracted from our experiences of particular things.","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1563867432260°
Annotationen:Abstraction, Re-Presentation, and Reflection: An Interpretation of Experience and of Piaget’s Approach/Wpt5k6ohg9 +
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Wpt5k6ohg9","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ2Ӻ","startOffset":485,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ2Ӻ","endOffset":1259°Ӻ,"quote":"I hope to make this clear with the help of an example. A child growing up in a region where apples are red would neessarily and quite correctly associate the idea of redness with the name “apple”. A distant relative arriving from another part of the country, bringing a basket of yellow apples, would cause a major perturbation for the child, who might want to insist that yellow things should not be called “apples”. However, the social pressure of the family’s usage of the word will soon force the child to accept the fact that the things people call “apple” come in different colors. The child might then be told that apples can also be green, which would enable the child to recognize such a particular green thing as an apple the first time it is brought to the house.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321099300528189935382":^°°,^"jQuery321099300528189935382":^°°Ӻ,"text":"I hope to make this clear with the help of an example. A child growing up in a region where apples are red would neessarily and quite correctly associate the idea of redness with the name “apple”. A distant relative arriving from another part of the country, bringing a basket of yellow apples, would cause a major perturbation for the child, who might want to insist that yellow things should not be called “apples”. However, the social pressure of the family’s usage of the word will soon force the child to accept the fact that the things people call “apple” come in different colors. The child might then be told that apples can also be green, which would enable the child to recognize such a particular green thing as an apple the first time it is brought to the house.","category":"Beispiel3","data_creacio":1563867858887°
Annotationen:Abstraction, Re-Presentation, and Reflection: An Interpretation of Experience and of Piaget’s Approach/Wx44xz9bju +
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Wx44xz9bju","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ8Ӻ","startOffset":1231,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ8Ӻ/pӶ2Ӻ","endOffset":249°Ӻ,"quote":"Yet it is clear that, insofar as such understanding is possible, it can be built up only as a “retroactive thematization”, that is, after the whole pattern has been empirically abstracted from the experience of enacting it.\nIn Piaget’s theory, the situation is similar in the first type of reflective abstraction: he maintains that it, too, may or may not involve the subject’s awareness.\nThroughout history, thinkers have used thought structures without having grasped them consciously. A classic example: Aristotle used the logic of relations, yet ignored it entirely in the construction of his own logic. (Piaget & Garcia, 1983; p.37)","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321049788301677932092":^°°,^"jQuery321049788301677932092":^°°,^"jQuery321049788301677932092":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563869547313°
Annotationen:Abstraction, Re-Presentation, and Reflection: An Interpretation of Experience and of Piaget’s Approach/X5rk7w03k3 +
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"X5rk7w03k3","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ5Ӻ","startOffset":1215,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ5Ӻ","endOffset":1735°Ӻ,"quote":"In re-presentation, on the other hand, some substitute for the sensory raw material must be generated. (As the example of the Volkswagen indicates, the re- generation of sensory material is much easier when parts of it are supplied by perception, a fact that was well known to the proponents of Gestalt psychology.) A difference analogous to that between acting on actually present perceptual material, as opposed to acting on material that must itself be generated, arises from the second limiting feature I mentioned.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321099300528189935382":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563868616929°
Annotationen:Abstraction, Re-Presentation, and Reflection: An Interpretation of Experience and of Piaget’s Approach/Y3m0svglur +
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Y3m0svglur","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ9Ӻ","startOffset":1982,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ9Ӻ","endOffset":2217°Ӻ,"quote":"In my terms this means, symbols can be associated with operations and, once the operations have become quite familiar, the symbols can be used to point to them without the need to produce an actual re-presentation of carrying them out.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321049788301677932092":^°°Ӻ,"text":"In my terms this means, symbols can be associated with operations and, once the operations have become quite familiar, the symbols can be used to point to them without the need to produce an actual re-presentation of carrying them out.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1563869607597°
Annotationen:Abstraction, Re-Presentation, and Reflection: An Interpretation of Experience and of Piaget’s Approach/Y3qt2ii27x +
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Y3qt2ii27x","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ8Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ8Ӻ","endOffset":906°Ӻ,"quote":"The fact that conscious conceptualized knowledge of a given situation developmentally lags behind the knowledge of how to act in the situation, is commonplace on the sensorymotor level. In my view, as I mentioned earlier, this is analogous to the temporal lag of the ability to re-present a given item relative to the ability to recognize it. But the ability spontaneously to re-present to oneself a sensory- motor image of, say, an apple, still falls short of what Piaget in the above passage called “conceptualized understanding”. This would involve awareness of the characteristics inherent in the concept of apple or whatever one is re-presenting to oneself, and this kind of awareness constitutes a higher level of mental functioning. This further step requires a good deal more of what Locke called the mind’s “art and pains to set (something) at a distance and make it its own object.”","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321049788301677932092":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563869539663°
Annotationen:Abstraction, Re-Presentation, and Reflection: An Interpretation of Experience and of Piaget’s Approach/Zibsapwn7j +
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Zibsapwn7j","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ8Ӻ","startOffset":1870,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ8Ӻ","endOffset":2008°Ӻ,"quote":"In other words, one can be quite aware of what one is cognitively operating on, without being aware of the operations one is carrying out.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321049788301677932092":^°°Ӻ,"text":"In other words, one can be quite aware of what one is cognitively operating on, without being aware of the operations one is carrying out.","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1563869477892°
Annotationen:Abstraction, Re-Presentation, and Reflection: An Interpretation of Experience and of Piaget’s Approach/Zvvv0kffkv +
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Zvvv0kffkv","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ7Ӻ","startOffset":2418,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ7Ӻ","endOffset":2744°Ӻ,"quote":"Hence, from his perspective, there is no linear progression without end, but simply development of method and concepts in one discipline leading to novel conceptualization and coordination in another. The recent impact of the physics of molecules and particles on the conceptual framework of biology would seem a good example.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321049788301677932092":^°°Ӻ,"text":"Hence, from his perspective, there is no linear progression without end, but simply development of method and concepts in one discipline leading to novel conceptualization and coordination in another. The recent impact of the physics of molecules and particles on the conceptual framework of biology would seem a good example.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1563869379966°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Ax7ozflvhm","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ","startOffset":1773,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ","endOffset":2362°Ӻ,"quote":"In order to survive a particular situation or change in the environment, an organism must have the required characteristics before the situation or change in the environment occurs that makes these characteristics necessary. In other words, surviving organisms are adapted before the event and it would make no sense whatever to say that they did or could change because of the event. There simply is no causal connection between the selecting event or environmental pressure and the properties the surviving organisms have acquired at a prior time through mutation or some other accident.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321078922152425233932":^°°Ӻ,"text":"In order to survive a particular situation or change in the environment, an organism must have the required characteristics before the situation or change in the environment occurs that makes these characteristics necessary. In other words, surviving organisms are adapted before the event and it would make no sense whatever to say that they did or could change because of the event. There simply is no causal connection between the selecting event or environmental pressure and the properties the surviving organisms have acquired at a prior time through mutation or some other accident.","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1563872685604°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Dkvqwd8cv5","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ","startOffset":2533,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ","endOffset":2831°Ӻ,"quote":"From an evolutionary point of view, it would be far more consistent to say that, like mutations, novel behaviors may arise for no biological reason at all and may be perpetuated from generation to generation, provided they do not diminish the organisms’ biological viability below a critical point.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321050562481707757452":^°°Ӻ,"text":"From an evolutionary point of view, it would be far more consistent to say that, like mutations, novel behaviors may arise for no biological reason at all and may be perpetuated from generation to generation, provided they do not diminish the organisms’ biological viability below a critical point.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1563873283671°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Gu6abzpjqn","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ","startOffset":664,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/pӶ1Ӻ","endOffset":327°Ӻ,"quote":"Let me cite one example that is particularly well-documented and well-known: the Japanese macaque Imo on Koshima Islet that started washing her sweet potatoes (Kawai, 1965). Within 10 years the entire population, with the exception of a few old males who were too conservative, practiced potato washing. There was no time for a mutation or some other genetic accident to increase or decrease anyone’s viability. Nor, indeed, is there any evidence that potato washing has increased anyone’s genetic fitness. But as the new activity quickly created exceptional familiarity with water, it led to yet another novel behavior: swimming. Since all this has taken place in a country where earthquakes and tectonic disasters are not at all impossible, it might be tempting to conjecture that if Koshima Islet should one day sink into the sea, the swimming skill might yet become the crucial feature that allows these macaques to reach a safe shore while the macaques in other sinking regions perish. Subsequent generations of sociobiologists could then use the swimming macaques as a textbook example for \n“evolutionary explanation.”\nBut such a scenario in which swimming might become an important asset toward the survival of macaques or macaque genes has not yet happened. Yet the washing of food and swimming have become part of the behavioral repertoire of a macaque population without the benefit of an evolutionary explanation.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321050562481707757452":^°°,^"jQuery321050562481707757452":^°°Ӻ,"text":"Let me cite one example that is particularly well-documented and well-known: the Japanese macaque Imo on Koshima Islet that started washing her sweet potatoes (Kawai, 1965). Within 10 years the entire population, with the exception of a few old males who were too conservative, practiced potato washing. There was no time for a mutation or some other genetic accident to increase or decrease anyone’s viability. Nor, indeed, is there any evidence that potato washing has increased anyone’s genetic fitness. But as the new activity quickly created exceptional familiarity with water, it led to yet another novel behavior: swimming. Since all this has taken place in a country where earthquakes and tectonic disasters are not at all impossible, it might be tempting to conjecture that if Koshima Islet should one day sink into the sea, the swimming skill might yet become the crucial feature that allows these macaques to reach a safe shore while the macaques in other sinking regions perish. Subsequent generations of sociobiologists could then use the swimming macaques as a textbook example for “evolutionary explanation.” But such a scenario in which swimming might become an important asset toward the survival of macaques or macaque genes has not yet happened. Yet the washing of food and swimming have become part of the behavioral repertoire of a macaque population without the benefit of an evolutionary explanation.","category":"Beispiel3","data_creacio":1563873380201°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Jvfpzhm9vy","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ3Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ3Ӻ","endOffset":1130°Ӻ,"quote":"There is a wealth of recent work in psychology that illustrates the very same phenomenon: the novel and wholly heterodox exploitation of basic, genetically determined behavioral elements in activities and skills for which no prior natural selection is conceivable. The remarkable success chimpanzees have scored in the various linguistic communication experiments is a case in point. There is no doubt that, in order to do what they are doing now, Washoe, Sarah, Lana, Lucy, and all the other linguistic chimps had to have some phylogenetically established potentialities. There had to be certain capabilities of memory, pattern recognition, cross-modal association and, above all, certain basic inductive processes. The experiments would, presumably, have had much less success with earthworms or lobsters. On the other hand, there is nothing whatsoever to warrant the assumption that any of the combinations of these phylogenetically evolved elements were genetically predisposed in the various ways in which they are now manifest in the chimpanzees’ use of American Sign Language, Yerkish, or the Premack system.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321050562481707757452":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563873233493°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Kgfby5twlm","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ","endOffset":664°Ӻ,"quote":"Finally, when we come to the genesis of culture, we have to take into account a phenomenon that is radically different from anything that occurs in biological evolution: the rapid propagation, within a population of organisms, of novel behaviors that, at the time of their spread, have nothing whatever to do with the organisms’ survival or their genetic fitness in terms of the perpetuation of their genes. We have, today, enough observational material to say that there are indeed behaviors that spread in a population without the help of genetic processes or natural selection. They spread for reasons that many of us may be reluctant to specify.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321050562481707757452":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563873410798°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Khbllgt3t8","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ2Ӻ","startOffset":1026,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ2Ӻ","endOffset":1335°Ӻ,"quote":"On the other hand, the result of ontogenetic adaptation is again viability. What an organism learns is retained for the very reason that it leads to satisfactory results. That is what Thorndike’s law of effect tells us, and it is also what the principle of inductive inference expresses in its simplest form:","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321050562481707757452":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563873177054°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Obrmbqyrkf","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ2Ӻ","startOffset":1335,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ2Ӻ","endOffset":1399°Ӻ,"quote":"If something has been found to work, it is likely to work again.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321050562481707757452":^°°,^"jQuery321050562481707757452":^°°Ӻ,"text":"If something has been found to work, it is likely to work again.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1563873167427°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Pqhlw7iuii","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ2Ӻ","startOffset":699,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ2Ӻ","endOffset":1024°Ӻ,"quote":"Hence one may also introduce the concept of reinforcement which, in phylogeny, would remain vacuous, since the only thing that could count as reinforcement on that level (i.e., survival) is not contingent upon the organism’s modification of its behavior but upon its past and therefore immutable history of genetic variation.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321050562481707757452":^°°Ӻ,"text":"Hence one may also introduce the concept of reinforcement which, in phylogeny, would remain vacuous, since the only thing that could count as reinforcement on that level (i.e., survival) is not contingent upon the organism’s modification of its behavior but upon its past and therefore immutable history of genetic variation.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1563873088687°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Szworve5xb","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ2Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ2Ӻ","endOffset":698°Ӻ,"quote":"The situation is quite different in ontogeny, where we can, indeed, speak meaningfully of an individual organism’s adaptation to environmental circumstances. The changes an organism shows in its behavior can to a large extent be conceived of as learning, and learning can always be considered as selection from a variety of possibilities. There is the variation or generation of a stock of different behaviors, and there is the operational triad of trial, error, and the inductive retention of successful solutions. Unlike what happens on the evolutionary scale, selection in ontogeny does not, as a rule, eliminate organisms but only an organism’s unsuccessful attempts or responses.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321050562481707757452":^°°,^"jQuery321050562481707757452":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563873065159°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Umq8ebiubf","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ3Ӻ","startOffset":1130,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ3Ӻ","endOffset":1390°Ӻ,"quote":"In other words, the basic operational elements were there, but their coordination into complex operational systems cannot be ascribed to natural selection, since it is demonstrably the result of learning in a very peculiar and highly sophisticated environment.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321050562481707757452":^°°Ӻ,"text":"In other words, the basic operational elements were there, but their coordination into complex operational systems cannot be ascribed to natural selection, since it is demonstrably the result of learning in a very peculiar and highly sophisticated environment.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1563873203782°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Waj7oz7sov","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ","endOffset":1773°Ӻ,"quote":"An “efficient” cause is an item to which we attribute the power to create a change, and the resulting change is then considered its effect. The agent in natural selection is the environment, or Nature, if you will—conspecifics and everything except the organism itself—and the change it creates is on the negative side alone: It eliminates. Insofar as it selects, Nature neither fosters nor encourages, it merely kills off. What does it kill? It kills those organisms that do not manage to overcome the difficulties, the obstacles, the pitfalls that it presents to them. Hence it is thoroughly misleading to speak of selection for—selection is always against. In other words, Nature places constraints in the path of survival and reproduction. That, however, still does not fully explain selection. If all organisms were exactly the same, there could be no selection and no differential reproduction. Facing an obstacle, they would either all perish or all survive. But there is variability, and organisms are never all the same. This is due partly to mutations and partly to the imperfection of their procedures for reproduction and replication.Ӷ4Ӻ The variations that constitute the stock within which selection can operate are wholly accidental. There must be no suggestion of evolutionary design or of environmental pressure toward survival mechanisms, for the moment we allow any such idea of directed change, the theory of evolution collapses into a teleological myth. On the other hand, if all variation is accidental, and if selection operates on what is there, by setting up constraints that eliminate some variants while others pass, it should be clear that the word “adaptation” cannot refer to any activity on the part of the surviving organisms.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321078922152425233932":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563872736586°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Wz1cnlo3b4","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/pӶ1Ӻ","startOffset":328,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/pӶ1Ӻ","endOffset":771°Ӻ,"quote":"Who is to say how many quite generally exhibited behaviors in the repertoire of more or less sophisticated organisms have arisen in the same spontaneous, selection-independent way? The proposal of radical sociobiologists to reduce the origin of all behaviors to the “mechanistic” process of natural selection seems doomed from the start. The reason, I believe, is again the misconception of selection as a mechanistic, i.e., efficient cause.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321050562481707757452":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563873421438°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"D4a5o8h3yn","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ9Ӻ","startOffset":641,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ9Ӻ","endOffset":810°Ӻ,"quote":"Epistemology thus becomes the study of how the mind operates, of the ways and means it employs to construct a relatively regular world out of the flow of its experience.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery32100363425842685938252":^°°Ӻ,"text":"Epistemology thus becomes the study of how the mind operates, of the ways and means it employs to construct a relatively regular world out of the flow of its experience.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1563876445982°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"D8ioavey6m","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ12Ӻ/pӶ1Ӻ","startOffset":792,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ12Ӻ/pӶ1Ӻ","endOffset":1382°Ӻ,"quote":"Two eggs may be considered the same because of their shape, size, or color, or because they come from the same hen; but there will be a pungent difference between them if one was laid yesterday and the other six weeks ago. A fieldmouse and an elephant are different in many ways, but they will be considered the same whenever we want to distinguish mammals from other animals. Finally, all eggs, all animals, and indeed all objects that I have ever seen or imagined, are the same in that one respect that I have isolated them as bounded, unitary objects in the total field of my experience.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery32100363425842685938252":^°°,^"jQuery32100363425842685938252":^°°Ӻ,"text":"Two eggs may be considered the same because of their shape, size, or color, or because they come from the same hen; but there will be a pungent difference between them if one was laid yesterday and the other six weeks ago. A fieldmouse and an elephant are different in many ways, but they will be considered the same whenever we want to distinguish mammals from other animals. Finally, all eggs, all animals, and indeed all objects that I have ever seen or imagined, are the same in that one respect that I have isolated them as bounded, unitary objects in the total field of my experience.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Beispiel3","data_creacio":1563876662266°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Dplt7s04u8","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ12Ӻ/pӶ1Ӻ","startOffset":0,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ12Ӻ/pӶ1Ӻ","endOffset":464°Ӻ,"quote":"A similar, often cited example, is the movie film which, depending on the conditions of perception, we see as a sequence of individually different images or as one continuously moving image. Irrespective of any “real” horse that may or may not have trotted somewhere at some time and been filmed while doing so, when the film is presented to us, we ourselves must construct the motion by constituting a continuous change of one horse from the succession of images.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery32100363425842685938252":^°°Ӻ,"text":"A similar, often cited example, is the movie film which, depending on the conditions of perception, we see as a sequence of individually different images or as one continuously moving image. Irrespective of any “real” horse that may or may not have trotted somewhere at some time and been filmed while doing so, when the film is presented to us, we ourselves must construct the motion by constituting a continuous change of one horse from the succession of images.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Beispiel3","data_creacio":1563876736430°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Ejuf8dv6qw","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ2Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ2Ӻ","endOffset":359°Ӻ,"quote":"Just a the environment places constraints on the living organism (biological structures) and eliminates all variants that in some way transgress the limits within which they are possible or “viable,” so the experiential world, be it that of everyday life or of the laboratory, constitutes the testing ground for our ideas (cognitive structures).","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321060068213243419022":^°°Ӻ,"text":"Just a the environment places constraints on the living organism (biological structures) and eliminates all variants that in some way transgress the limits within which they are possible or “viable,” so the experiential world, be it that of everyday life or of the laboratory, constitutes the testing ground for our ideas (cognitive structures).","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1563875790098°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Gv8fsjs8m9","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ5Ӻ","startOffset":1423,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ5Ӻ","endOffset":1531°Ӻ,"quote":"The only aspect of that “real” world that actually enters into the realm of experience, are its constraints;","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321034722876891263812":^°°Ӻ,"text":"The only aspect of that “real” world that actually enters into the realm of experience, are its constraints;","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1563876189943°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Hr46f5ns5g","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ10Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ10Ӻ","endOffset":484°Ӻ,"quote":"If, however, as Alcmaeon already suggested, the human activity of knowing cannot lead to a certain and true picture of the world but only to conjectural interpretation, then that activity can be viewed as the creating of keys with whose help man unlocks paths towards the goals he chooses. That means that the second question we asked at the end of the preceding section, namely, why a cognitive activity should take place, is inextricably connected with the first one:","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery32100363425842685938252":^°°,^"jQuery32100363425842685938252":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563876525726°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Hu8t7ivxxd","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ6Ӻ","startOffset":1178,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ6Ӻ","endOffset":1365°Ӻ,"quote":"The question is unanswerable, because no matter what we do, we can check our perceptions only by means of other perceptions, but never with the apple as it might be before we perceive it.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321034722876891263812":^°°Ӻ,"text":"The question is unanswerable, because no matter what we do, we can check our perceptions only by means of other perceptions, but never with the apple as it might be before we perceive it.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1563876261562°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"J5co3p0yi1","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ1Ӻ","startOffset":444,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ","endOffset":1915°Ӻ,"quote":"From the radical constructivist point of view, all of us – scientists, philosophers, laymen, school children, animals, indeed any kind of living organism - face our environment as the burglar faces a lock that he has to unlock in order to get at the loot.\n\nThis is the sense in which the word “fit” applies to Darwin’s and neo-Darwinist theories of evolution. Unfortunately, Darwin himself used the expression “survival of the fittest.” In doing that, he prepared the way or the misguided notion that, on the basis of his theory, one could consider certain things fitter than fit, and that among those there could even be a fittest.Ӷ7Ӻ But in a theory in which survival is the only criterion for the selection of species, there are only two possibilities:","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321060068213243419022":^°°,^"jQuery321060068213243419022":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563875735827°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Jcx3h525gq","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ12Ӻ","startOffset":2824,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ12Ӻ","endOffset":3209°Ӻ,"quote":"Sameness, however, as we have seen, is always relative: Objects, and experiences in general, are the “same” with respect to the properties or components that have been checked in a comparison. Hence, an experience that consists, for instance, of the elements a, b, and c, can be considered the same as an experience consisting of a, b, c, and x, as long as x is not taken into account.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery32100363425842685938252":^°°Ӻ,"text":"Sameness, however, as we have seen, is always relative: Objects, and experiences in general, are the “same” with respect to the properties or components that have been checked in a comparison. Hence, an experience that consists, for instance, of the elements a, b, and c, can be considered the same as an experience consisting of a, b, c, and x, as long as x is not taken into account.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1563876600510°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Jscl4gi3cs","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ10Ӻ","startOffset":484,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ10Ӻ","endOffset":658°Ӻ,"quote":"because the success of a key does not depend on finding a lock into which it might fit, but solely on whether or not it opens the way to the particular goal we want to reach.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery32100363425842685938252":^°°Ӻ,"text":"because the success of a key does not depend on finding a lock into which it might fit, but solely on whether or not it opens the way to the particular goal we want to reach.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1563876502307°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Lxhbugq5yp","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ7Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ7Ӻ","endOffset":1139°Ӻ,"quote":"Our main question was how it might come about that we experience a relatively stable and reliable world in spite of the fact that we are unable to ascribe stability, regularity, or any other perceived property to an objective reality. Vico does not answer that question; rather, he makes it superfluous and meaningless. If, as he says, the world that we experience and get to know is necessarily constructed by ourselves, it should not surprise us that it seems relatively stable. To appreciate this, it is necessary to keep in mind that the most fundamental trait of constructivist epistemology, i.e., that the world that is constructed is an experiential world that consists of experiences and makes no claim whatsoever about “truth” in the sense of correspondence with an ontological reality. Hence, Vico’s position is in that respect similar to that of Kant, who says; “Nature, therefore … is the collective conception of all objects of experience.”Ӷ23Ӻ For Kant, it is the “raw material of sensory impression” which “the mind’s activity ... processes so that it becomes knowledge of objects that we call experience.”Ӷ24Ӻ","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321034722876891263812":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563876332082°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Mulzzgf0vh","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ12Ӻ/pӶ1Ӻ","startOffset":1383,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ12Ӻ","endOffset":2824°Ӻ,"quote":"In these cases, as in all conceivable ones, it should be clear that the criteria by means of which sameness or difference is established are criteria that are created and chosen by the judging, experiencing subject and cannot be ascribed to an experiencer-independent world. \n\nFor an understanding of radical constructivism it is even more important to appreciate the subject’s active operating that gives rise to regularities and invariances in the experiential world. Both regularity and constancy presuppose repeated experience, and repetition can be established only on the basis of a comparison that yields a judgment of sameness.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery32100363425842685938252":^°°,^"jQuery32100363425842685938252":^°°,^"jQuery32100363425842685938252":^°°,^"jQuery32100363425842685938252":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563876754662°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"N9ris827xd","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ11Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ11Ӻ","endOffset":500°Ӻ,"quote":"Constructivism necessarily begins with the (intuitively confirmed) assumption that all cognitive activity takes place within the experiential world of a goal-directed consciousness. Goal-directedness, in this context has, of course, nothing to do with goals in an “external” reality. The goals that are involved here arise for no other reason than this: a cognitive organism evaluates its experiences, and because it evaluates them, it tends to repeat certain ones and to avoid others.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery32100363425842685938252":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563876560677°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Nnvl495h6o","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ7Ӻ","startOffset":1139,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ7Ӻ","endOffset":1389°Ӻ,"quote":"In other words, experience as well as all objects of experience are under all circumstances the result of our ways and means of experiencing, and are necessarily structured and determined by space and time and the other categories derived from these","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321034722876891263812":^°°Ӻ,"text":" In other words, experience as well as all objects of experience are under all circumstances the result of our ways and means of experiencing, and are necessarily structured and determined by space and time and the other categories derived from these","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1563876317998°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Oj53uotm4g","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ3Ӻ","startOffset":284,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ3Ӻ","endOffset":488°Ӻ,"quote":"“natural selection” does not in any positive sense select the fittest, the sturdiest, the best, or the truest, but it functions negatively, in that it simply lets go under whatever does not pass the test.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321060068213243419022":^°°Ӻ,"text":"“natural selection” does not in any positive sense select the fittest, the sturdiest, the best, or the truest, but it functions negatively, in that it simply lets go under whatever does not pass the test.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1563875922769°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Pet52dftig","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ2Ӻ","startOffset":360,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ2Ӻ","endOffset":1033°Ӻ,"quote":"That applies to the very first regularities the infant establishes in its barely differentiated experience, it applies to the rules with whose help adults try to manage their common sense world, and it applies to the hypotheses, the theories, and the so-called “natural laws” that scientists formulate in their endeavor to glean lasting stability and order from the widest possible range of experiences. In the light of further experience, regularities, rules of thumb, and theories either prove themselves reliable or they do not (unless we introduce the concept of probability – in which case we are explicitly relinquishing the condition that knowledge must be certain).","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321060068213243419022":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563875800123°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Pkei38jxuj","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ3Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ3Ӻ","endOffset":284°Ӻ,"quote":"If we take seriously the evolutionary way of thinking, it could never be organisms or ideas that adapt to reality, but it is always reality which, by limiting what is possible, inexorably annihilates what is not fit to live. In phylogenesis, as in the history of ideas,","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321060068213243419022":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563875931523°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Plr2bjld4g","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ12Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ12Ӻ/pӶ1Ӻ","endOffset":0°Ӻ,"quote":"No one uses these conceptual possibilities more skillfully than the professional magician. During a performance he may, for instance, request a spectator’s ring, toss another ring across the room to his assistant, and then let the stunned spectator find his ring in his own coat pocket. The magic consists in directing the spectators’ perception in such a way that they unwittingly construct an individual identity between the first experience of the ring and the experience of the thrown object. Once that has been done, it would, indeed, require magic to transfer the ring from the assistant to the spectator’s pocket. Another case is that of the red ribbon which the magician cuts into little pieces and then – literally with a flick of his hand – produces once more as one whole piece.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery32100363425842685938252":^°°Ӻ,"text":"No one uses these conceptual possibilities more skillfully than the professional magician. During a performance he may, for instance, request a spectator’s ring, toss another ring across the room to his assistant, and then let the stunned spectator find his ring in his own coat pocket. The magic consists in directing the spectators’ perception in such a way that they unwittingly construct an individual identity between the first experience of the ring and the experience of the thrown object. Once that has been done, it would, indeed, require magic to transfer the ring from the assistant to the spectator’s pocket. Another case is that of the red ribbon which the magician cuts into little pieces and then – literally with a flick of his hand – produces once more as one whole piece.\n\n","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Beispiel3","data_creacio":1563876692039°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Rzvf82meai","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ","startOffset":915,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ","endOffset":1011°Ӻ,"quote":"Hence, the environment can, at best, be held responsible for extinction, but never for survival.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321034722876891263812":^°°Ӻ,"text":"Hence, the environment can, at best, be held responsible for extinction, but never for survival.","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1563876132390°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Siqwoam8h1","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ","startOffset":1915,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ","endOffset":2041°Ӻ,"quote":"either a species fits its environment (including the other species), or it does not; i.e., it either survives, or it dies out.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321060068213243419022":^°°Ӻ,"text":"either a species fits its environment (including the other species), or it does not; i.e., it either survives, or it dies out.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1563875647388°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Snada3v81n","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ12Ӻ/pӶ1Ӻ","startOffset":465,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ12Ӻ/pӶ1Ӻ","endOffset":791°Ӻ,"quote":"The fact that we do that unconsciously can not alter the fact that we have to do it in order to perceive the motion. \nNo less constructed are the judgments of sameness and difference in the realm of perceptual objects. As I indicated above, “sameness” is always the result of an examination with regard to specific properties.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery32100363425842685938252":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563876743668°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Tcbgm4w3tr","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ1Ӻ","startOffset":89,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ1Ӻ","endOffset":443°Ӻ,"quote":"A key fits if it opens the lock. The fit describes a capacity of the key, not of the lock. Thanks to professional burglars, we know only too well that there are many keys that are shaped quite differently from ours but nevertheless unlock our doors. The metaphor is crude, but it serves quite well to bring into relief the difference I want to explicate.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321060068213243419022":^°°Ӻ,"text":"A key fits if it opens the lock. The fit describes a capacity of the key, not of the lock. Thanks to professional burglars, we know only too well that there are many keys that are shaped quite differently from ours but nevertheless unlock our doors. The metaphor is crude, but it serves quite well to bring into relief the difference I want to explicate.","category":"Beispiel3","data_creacio":1563875707167°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Ub3689yii4","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ1Ӻ","endOffset":89°Ӻ,"quote":"In everyday English, that conceptual opposition can be brought out quite clearly by pitting the words “match” and “fit” against one another in certain contexts. The metaphysical realist looks for knowledge that matches reality in the same sense as you might look for paint to match the color that is already on the wall that you have to repair. In the epistemologist’s case it is, of course, not color that concerns him, but he is, nevertheless, concerned with some kind of “homomorphism,” which is to say, an equivalence of relations, sequence, or characteristic structure – something, in other words, that he can consider the same, because only then could he say that his knowledge is of the world.\nIf, on the other hand, we say that something fits, we have in mind a different relation.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321060068213243419022":^°°,^"jQuery321060068213243419022":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563875726429°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Wa0fcv6npz","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ9Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ9Ӻ","endOffset":641°Ӻ,"quote":"First, there is the realization that knowledge, i.e., what is “known,” cannot be the result of a passive receiving but originates as the product of an active subject’s activity. This activity is, of course, not a manipulating of “things in themselves,” i.e., of objects that could be thought to possess, prior to being experienced, the properties and the structure which the experiencer attributes to them. We therefore call the activity that builds up knowledge “operating,” and it is the operating of that cognitive entity which, as Piaget has so succinctly formulated, organizes its experiential world by organizing itself.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery32100363425842685938252":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563876459314°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Wejx8rywia","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ8Ӻ","startOffset":1360,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ8Ӻ","endOffset":1490°Ӻ,"quote":"Quite generally, that means that the world which we experience is, and must be as it is, because we have put it together that way.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery32100363425842685938252":^°°Ӻ,"text":"Quite generally, that means that the world which we experience is, and must be as it is, because we have put it together that way.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1563876391398°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Wjaxx1wuhk","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ8Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ8Ӻ","endOffset":1360°Ӻ,"quote":"The processing of the raw material in Kant’s system is governed automatically by space and time (without which no experience would be possible) and the other categories which, for that very reason, are called a priori. The a priori, therefore, might be considered the technical description of the organism’s experiential capability. The a priori describes the framework within which such an organism operates, but it does not tell us what the organism does, let alone why it does it. “A priori” is tantamount to “built-in” or “innate,” and Kant’s justification of it leads, albeit in a roundabout fashion, to God and to a Platonic mythology of ideas. In that respect, Vico is more modern and more prosaic. Of the category of causality, for instance, he says: “If true means to have been made, then to prove something by means of its cause is the same as causing it.”Ӷ25Ӻ This notion (which has been rediscovered, no doubt without any knowledge of Vico, by the modern constructivist mathematicians) has, as Vico realized, a remarkably wide range of application. \nCauses thus originate in the putting together of individual elements; that is, they originate from an experiencer’s active operating, such that, for instance, “the determinate (i.e., causally determined) form of the object springs from the order and the composition of elements.”Ӷ26Ӻ","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery32100363425842685938252":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563876415214°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Ws2ok1u2g3","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ5Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ5Ӻ","endOffset":1423°Ӻ,"quote":"These considerations fit the basic problem of the theory of knowledge equally well. Quite generally, our knowledge is useful, relevant, viable, or however we want to call the positive end of the scale of evaluation, if it stands up to experience and enables us to make predictions and to bring about or avoid, as the case may be, certain phenomena (i.e., appearances, events, experiences). If knowledge does not serve that purpose, it becomes questionable, unreliable, useless, and is eventually devaluated as superstition. That is to say, from the pragmatic point of view, we consider ideas, theories, and “laws of nature” as structures which are constantly exposed to our experiential world (from which we derived them), and they either hold up or they do not. Any cognitive structure that serves its purpose in our time, therefore, proves no more and no less than just that – namely, given the circumstances we have experienced (and determined by experiencing them), it has done what was expected of it. Logically, that gives us no clue as to how the “objective” world might be; it merely means that we know one viable way to a goal that we have chosen under specific circumstances in our experiential world. It tells us nothing – and cannot tell us anything – about how many other ways there might be, or how that experience which we consider the goal might be connected to a world beyond our experience.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321034722876891263812":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563876223743°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Yuqkts2gic","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ6Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ6Ӻ","endOffset":1178°Ӻ,"quote":"If knowledge is to be a description or image of the world as such, we need a criterion that might enable us to judge when our descriptions or images are “right” or “true.” Thus, with the scenario in which man is born into a ready-made independent world as a “discoverer” with the task of exploring and “knowing” that reality in the truest possible fashion, with this scenario the path of skepticism is there from the outset. The notion of “appearance” and “semblance” which, according to Xenophanes attaches to all human knowledge, was elaborated and applied above all to perception by Pyrrho’s school and, later, by Sextus Empiricus; and the unanswerable question whether, or to what extent, any picture our senses “convey” might correspond to the “objective” reality is still today the crux of all theory of knowledge. Sextus used, among other things, an apple as an example. To our senses it appears smooth, scented, sweet, and yellow – but it is far from self-evident that the real apple possesses these properties, just as it is not at all obvious that it does not possess other properties as well, properties that are simply not perceived by our senses.Ӷ16Ӻ","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321034722876891263812":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563876276136°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Zrmagm8yfp","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ11Ӻ","startOffset":500,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ11Ӻ","endOffset":664°Ӻ,"quote":"The products of conscious cognitive activity, therefore, always have a purpose and are, at least originally, assessed according to how well they serve that purpose.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery32100363425842685938252":^°°Ӻ,"text":"The products of conscious cognitive activity, therefore, always have a purpose and are, at least originally, assessed according to how well they serve that purpose.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1563876547629°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Ztzeq1fx2d","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ","endOffset":915°Ӻ,"quote":"More important still is the epistemological aspect of the analogy. In spite of the often misleading assertions of ethologists, the structure of behavior of living organisms can never serve as a basis for conclusions concerning an “objective” world, i.e., a world as it might be prior to experience.Ӷ8Ӻ The reason for this, according to the theory of evolution, is that there is no causal link between that world and the survival capacity of biological structures or behaviors. As Gregory Bateson has stressed, Darwin’s theory is based on the principle of constraints, not on the principle of cause and effect.Ӷ9Ӻ The organisms that we find alive at any particular moment of evolutionary history, and their ways of behaving, are the result of cumulative accidental variations, and the influence of the environment was and is, under all circumstances, limited to the elimination of non-viable variants.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321034722876891263812":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563876151039°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Boinfn2if1","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ2Ӻ","startOffset":541,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ2Ӻ","endOffset":1469°Ӻ,"quote":"To understand Piaget’s theoretical scaffolding it is indeed indispensable to remember that he began as a biologist. He knew full well that the biological, phylogenetic adaptation of organisms to their environment was not an activity carried out by individuals or by a species. It was the result of natural selection, and natural selection does nothing but eliminate those specimens that do not possess the physical properties and the behavioral capabilities that are necessary to survive under the conditions of the present environment. All organisms that are equipped with senses and the ability to remember sensory experiences can, of course, to some extent individually increase their chances of survival by practical learning. Traditionally this was considered a separate domain, and it was explained by association. Piaget, however, who focused on human development, connected it to the biological principle of the reflex.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321067858316304227512":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1575649626664°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"D87aoepwlz","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ","endOffset":569°Ӻ,"quote":"The term ‘adaptation’ is the salient point. In many of his writings (he published over 80 books and several hundred articles) he reiterates that what we call knowledge cannot be a representation of an observer-independent reality. And every now and then, as in the passage I quoted, he says that the human activity of knowing is the highest form of adaptation. But he rarely put the two statements together – and this may have made it easier for both his followers and his critics to ignore the revolutionary conceptual change his theory was demanding.v","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321096356891943976622":^°°,^"jQuery321096356891943976622":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1575649024351°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"E4dke75vc7","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ2Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ2Ӻ","endOffset":540°Ӻ,"quote":"The passage I quoted also indicates that there is more than one level of adaptation. On the sensorimotor level of perception and bodily action, it is avoidance of physical perturbation and the possibility of survival that matter. On the level of thought we are concerned with concepts, their connections, with theories and explanations. All these are only indirectly linked to the practice of living. On this higher level, viability is determined by the attainment of goals and the elimination of conceptual contradictions.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321067858316304227512":^°°Ӻ,"text":"The passage I quoted also indicates that there is more than one level of adaptation. On the sensorimotor level of perception and bodily action, it is avoidance of physical perturbation and the possibility of survival that matter. On the level of thought we are concerned with concepts, their connections, with theories and explanations. All these are only indirectly linked to the practice of living. On this higher level, viability is determined by the attainment of goals and the elimination of conceptual contradictions.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1575649616831°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Elrguxn0ti","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ","startOffset":527,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ","endOffset":758°Ӻ,"quote":"The pattern of learning, however, is the same as in Piaget’s scheme theory, and once we impute to an organism the capability of reflecting upon its experiences, we can say that the principle of induction arises in its own thinking.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321026107587663555942":^°°Ӻ,"text":"The pattern of learning, however, is the same as in Piaget’s scheme theory, and once we impute to an organism the capability of reflecting upon its experiences, we can say that the principle of induction arises in its own thinking.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1575651166287°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Exghx797kw","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ6Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ6Ӻ/pӶ2Ӻ","endOffset":790°Ӻ,"quote":"In their seminal 1943 paper, Rosenblueth, Wiener, and Bigelow wrote: \nThe purpose of voluntary acts is not a matter of arbitrary interpretation but a physiological fact. When we perform a voluntary action, what we select voluntarily is a specific purpose, not a specific movement. (Rosenblueth et al., 1943, p.19) \nIn their discussion of purposeful behavior, they used the example of bringing a glass of water to one’s mouth in order to drink. The term negative feedback, they explained, signifies that “the behavior of an object is controlled by the margin of error at which the object stands at a given time with reference to a relatively specific goal” (ibid.). Such goal-directed behavior, however, has another indispensable component. In order to “control” the margin of error indicated by the feedback – in the given example this would be to reduce the distance that separates the glass from one’s mouth – the acting subject must decide to act in a way that will reduce the error. And nothing but inductive inferences from past experience can enable the subject to chose a suitable way of acting.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321059785488485491732":^°°,^"jQuery321059785488485491732":^°°,^"jQuery321059785488485491732":^°°,^"jQuery321059785488485491732":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1575652090247°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"H846yq7lyj","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ7Ӻ","startOffset":1953,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ7Ӻ","endOffset":2036°Ӻ,"quote":"Without the conception of change there would be no use for the notion of causation.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321045699912028685132":^°°Ӻ,"text":"Without the conception of change there would be no use for the notion of causation.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1575884155564°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"J8tzjlulb4","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ6Ӻ","startOffset":1926,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ6Ӻ","endOffset":2063°Ӻ,"quote":"All my decisions to carry out specific actions are based on the expectation that they will bring about a change towards the desired goal.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321059785488485491732":^°°Ӻ,"text":"All my decisions to carry out specific actions are based on the expectation that they will bring about a change towards the desired goal.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1575652167982°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Kez1488djx","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ","endOffset":527°Ӻ,"quote":"Humberto Maturana has characterized this by saying: \nA living system, due to its circular organization, is an inductive system and functions always in a predictive manner: what happened once will occur again. Its organization (genetic and otherwise) is conservative and repeats only that which works. (Maturana, 1970; p.15–16) \n\nThis was not intended to imply that primitive living organisms actually formulate expectations or make predictions. It was a sophisticated observer’s way of describing their behavior.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321026107587663555942":^°°,^"jQuery321026107587663555942":^°°,^"jQuery321026107587663555942":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1575651153626°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Kvc1m6pnqd","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ9Ӻ/pӶ1Ӻ","startOffset":0,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ9Ӻ","endOffset":1292°Ӻ,"quote":"I have suggested elsewhere that Aristotle, who provided the most valuable analysis of the concepts of causation, was well aware of the ambiguity. In his exposition, it becomes clear that what he called ‘final’ cause, i.e., the embodiment of a telos or goal, had two quite distinct applications (Glasersfeld, 1990). On the one hand, he saw the religious metaphysical belief that there was a telos, an ultimate, perfect state of the universe that draws the progress of the world we know towards itself. On the other, there was a second notion of the final cause, which he exemplified by saying that people go for walks for the sake of their health (Physics, Book II, ch.3, 194b195a). This was a practical explanatory principle for which there is, indeed, an overwhelming amount of empirical evidence. \n\nIn this practical manifestation of finality, no actual future state is involved, but a mental re-presentation of a state that has been experienced as the result of a particular action.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery3210471316184649266942":^°°,^"jQuery3210471316184649266942":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1579283025528°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Omso6tefg9","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ6Ӻ/pӶ3Ӻ","startOffset":0,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ6Ӻ","endOffset":1925°Ӻ,"quote":"Let us look at the example more closely. I am thirsty, and there is a glass of water in front of me on the table. From past experience I have learned (by induction and abstraction) that water is a means to quench my thirst. This is the ‘voluntary purpose’ I have chosen at the moment. In other words, I am anticipating that water will do again what it did in the past. But to achieve my purpose, I have to drink the water. There, again, I am relying on past experience, in the sense that I carry out the ‘specific movements’ which I expect (anticipate) to bring the glass to my lips. It is these movements that are controlled and guided by negative feedback. \n\n\nWhen I reflect upon this sequence of decisions and actions, it becomes clear that the notion of causality plays an important role in the event.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321059785488485491732":^°°,^"jQuery321059785488485491732":^°°Ӻ,"text":"Let us look at the example more closely. I am thirsty, and there is a glass of water in front of me on the table. From past experience I have learned (by induction and abstraction) that water is a means to quench my thirst. This is the ‘voluntary purpose’ I have chosen at the moment. In other words, I am anticipating that water will do again what it did in the past. But to achieve my purpose, I have to drink the water. There, again, I am relying on past experience, in the sense that I carry out the ‘specific movements’ which I expect (anticipate) to bring the glass to my lips. It is these movements that are controlled and guided by negative feedback.\nWhen I reflect upon this sequence of decisions and actions, it becomes clear that the notion of causality plays an important role in the event.","category":"Beispiel3","data_creacio":1575652121799°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"P519c13mit","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ8Ӻ","startOffset":1382,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ8Ӻ","endOffset":1561°Ӻ,"quote":"The use of a cause-effect link in order to bring about a change is based on the belief that, since the cause has produced its effect in the past, it will produce it in the future.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321016047641881360622":^°°Ӻ,"text":"The use of a cause-effect link in order to bring about a change is based on the belief that, since the cause has produced its effect in the past, it will produce it in the future.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1575889382978°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"S6xchbgg1w","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ9Ӻ","startOffset":1293,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ9Ӻ","endOffset":2027°Ӻ,"quote":"Even in Aristotle’s day, bright people had noticed that those who regularly took some physical exercise such as walking, had a better chance of staying healthy. They had observed this often enough to consider it a reliable rule. Given that they had Olympic games and were interested in the performances of athletes, they probably also had some plausible theory of why exercise made one feel better. Consequently, they were confident in believing that going for walks was an efficient cause that had the effect of maintaining and even improving your health. People who felt that their physical fitness was deteriorating could, therefore, reasonably decide to use walking as a tool to bring about a beneficial change in their condition.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery3210471316184649266942":^°°Ӻ,"text":"Even in Aristotle’s day, bright people had noticed that those who regularly took some physical exercise such as walking, had a better chance of staying healthy. They had observed this often enough to consider it a reliable rule. Given that they had Olympic games and were interested in the performances of athletes, they probably also had some plausible theory of why exercise made one feel better. Consequently, they were confident in believing that going for walks was an efficient cause that had the effect of maintaining and even improving your health. People who felt that their physical fitness was deteriorating could, therefore, reasonably decide to use walking as a tool to bring about a beneficial change in their condition.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Beispiel3","data_creacio":1579283051117°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Sdo9pndh63","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ3Ӻ/pӶ3Ӻ","startOffset":1560,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ3Ӻ","endOffset":2874°Ӻ,"quote":"Anyway, the more sophisticated view of the reflex enabled Piaget to take the tripartite pattern of perceived situation, action, and result as the basis for what he called ‘Action Scheme’. It provided a powerful model for a form of practical learning on the sensorimotor level that was the same, in principle, for animals and humans. \n\n\nStudies of animal behavior had shown that even the most primitive organisms tend to move towards situations that in the past provided agreeable experiences rather than towards those that proved unpleasant or painful.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery3210077353398160104782":^°°,^"jQuery3210077353398160104782":^°°Ӻ,"text":"Anyway, the more sophisticated view of the reflex enabled Piaget to take the tripartite pattern of perceived situation, action, and result as the basis for what he called ‘Action Scheme’. It provided a powerful model for a form of practical learning on the sensorimotor level that was the same, in principle, for animals and humans.\nStudies of animal behavior had shown that even the most primitive organisms tend to move towards situations that in the past provided agreeable experiences rather than towards those that proved unpleasant or painful.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1575650828086°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Sv6u23dqzm","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ7Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ7Ӻ/pӶ1Ӻ","endOffset":1450°Ӻ,"quote":"Many years ago, Silvio Ceccato, the first persistent practitioner of Bridgman’s operational analysis, devised a graphic method of mapping complex concepts by means of a sequence of frames (I have borrowed the term ‘frame’ from cinematography; Glasersfeld, 1974). Because no single observation can lead to the conclusion that something has changed, we need a sequence of at least two frames showing something that acquires a difference. Consequently, the mapping has the following form: \n \nwhere “X” represents an item that is considered to be the same individual in both frames (indicated by the identity symbol “=“). In short, we maintain an item’s individual identity throughout two or more observational frames, and, at the same time, we claim that in the later frame it has gained a property “A” that it did not have in the earlier one (or we claim that it lost a property it had before). \nThe condition of identity may seem too obvious to mention, but analytically it is important to make it explicit, because of the ambiguity of the expression “the same”. In English we say, “This is the same man who asked directions at the airport”, and we mean that it is the same individual; but we might also say to a new acquaintance, “Oh, we are driving the same car – I, too, have an old Beetle!” and now we are speaking of two cars. In the first case, we could add, “Look, the man has changed – he’s had a haircut!” In the second case, we cannot speak of change although our car is blue, and the other’s yellow. \nIn French, the ambiguity of “le même” is analogous, and in German and Italian, although two words would be available to mark the conceptual difference, their use is quite indiscriminate. In fact, the situation in all these languages is worse, because common usage has modified the meaning of “identical” so that it can refer to the similarity or equivalence of two objects as well as to the individual identity of one.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321045699912028685132":^°°,^"jQuery321045699912028685132":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1575884166627°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"T3wyw2ffcp","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ3Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ3Ӻ/pӶ3Ӻ","endOffset":1560°Ӻ,"quote":"In most textbooks of behavioral biology, reflexes are described as automatic reactions to a stimulus. Piaget took into account two features that are usually not mentioned. The first was that the existence of heritable reflexes could be explained only by the fact that a fixed reaction, acquired through an accidental mutation, produced a result that gave the individuals who had it, an edge in the struggle for survival. \nIt is important to see that the specific property or capability that constitutes the evolutionary advantage has to be incorporated in the genome before the conditions arise relative to which it is considered adapted. \nRemaining aware of the role of its result, Piaget thought of a reflex, as consisting of three elements: \n\nThe addition of ‘expectation’ sprang from the second observation Piaget had made, namely that most if not all the reflexes manifested by the human infant disappear or are modified during the course of maturation. The ‘rooting reflex’, for instance, that causes the baby to turn its head and to begin to suck when something touches its cheek, goes into remission soon after nourishment through a nipple is replaced by the use of cups and spoons. \nPiaget also found that new ‘fixed action patterns’ can be developed. Such acquired reflexive behaviors are an integral part of our adult living. Among them are the way we move our feet when we go up or down stairs, the innumerable actions and reactions that have to become automatic if we want to be good at a sport, and, of course, the rituals of greeting an acquaintance and of small talk at a cocktail party. There are also reflexes that may lead to disaster – for example the way we stamp our foot on the brake pedal when an unexpected obstacle appears before us on the road. \nAn acquired reflex that impressed me much when I was young, was the one developed by the adolescent men and women of societies that prescribed skirts for females and trousers for males. In a sitting position, these women would unconsciously spread their skirt when something was thrown to them, whereas the men would clamp their knees together. (In those days, this was still used in the strictly male monasteries of Greece and Macedonia, in order to detect female intruders. \nToday, they have presumably thought of another test.)","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery3210077353398160104782":^°°,^"jQuery3210077353398160104782":^°°,^"jQuery3210077353398160104782":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1575650837355°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Uox21p9i32","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ9Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ9Ӻ","endOffset":307°Ӻ,"quote":"To believe that the future affects the present is no doubt a superstition, but to declare that purpose and goal-directed action must be discarded because they are teleological notions is no better. It shows an abysmal ignorance of the difference between empirical and metaphysical teleology.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery3210471316184649266942":^°°Ӻ,"text":"To believe that the future affects the present is no doubt a superstition, but to declare that purpose and goal-directed action must be discarded because they are teleological notions is no better. It shows an abysmal ignorance of the difference between empirical and metaphysical teleology. ","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1579282988165°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Uvkospj4ha","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ","startOffset":569,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ","endOffset":946°Ӻ,"quote":"If you consider that in the context of the Darwinian theory of evolution, “to be adapted” means to survive by avoiding constraints, it becomes clear that, for Piaget, “to know” does not involve acquiring a picture of the world around us. Instead, it concerns the discovery of paths of action and of thought that are open to us, paths that are viable in the face of experience.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321096356891943976622":^°°,^"jQuery321096356891943976622":^°°Ӻ,"text":"If you consider that in the context of the Darwinian theory of evolution, “to be adapted” means to survive by avoiding constraints, it becomes clear that, for Piaget, “to know” does not involve acquiring a picture of the world around us. Instead, it concerns the discovery of paths of action and of thought that are open to us, paths that are viable in the face of experience.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1575649013530°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Vnpn68pmsh","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ8Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ8Ӻ","endOffset":1381°Ӻ,"quote":"If we really are scientists, we will run all sorts of experiments in order to construct a theoretical model that shows how the element “c” effects the change. If we are successful, we will proudly add “c” to the tools we use in attempts to modify the world. \nIn everyday living, we are not so meticulous. If we find that some element was present two or three times when a given X changed in a desirable way, we are likely to assume that it is the cause, and we will use that element in the hope that it will bring about the desired change. \nEven if it doesn’t, it may take a number of failures to discourage us. If someone provides a metaphysical reason why it should work, failures do not seem to matter at all. \nI am not sure, but I think it was the literary critic Cyril Connolly who made a startling observation in this regard. Insurance companies, he said, have the most sophisticated questionnaires to assess the risks involved in issuing a life insurance policy to an applicant. The questionnaires are based on meticulous research of mortality statistics. Connolly was struck by the fact that the questionnaires never ask the question “Do you pray?” And he wondered why people continued to pray for survival in all sorts of crisis, when the greatest experts of mortality clearly had found no evidence that it had an effect. \n\nAll this involves anticipation.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321016047641881360622":^°°,^"jQuery321016047641881360622":^°°,^"jQuery321016047641881360622":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1575889369995°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"C9r1i7ipo5","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ","startOffset":348,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ","endOffset":770°Ӻ,"quote":"This is an important difference, and it has to be remembered when one speaks of “shared meanings.” The conceptual structures that constitute meanings or knowledge are not entities that could be used alternatively by different individuals. They are constructs that each user has to build up for him- or herself. And because they are individual constructs, one can never say whether or not two people have produced the same.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery3210434043887701232032":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563883332428°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"D5l3rmx70s","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ3Ӻ","startOffset":1366,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ3Ӻ","endOffset":1516°Ӻ,"quote":"Hence, when we intend to stimulate and enhance a student’s learning, we cannot afford to forget that knowledge does not exist outside a person’s mind.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery3210434043887701232032":^°°Ӻ,"text":"Hence, when we intend to stimulate and enhance a student’s learning, we cannot afford to forget that knowledge does not exist outside a person’s mind.","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1563883164876°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Decgnreoeu","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ","endOffset":964°Ӻ,"quote":"The concept of adaptation stems from biology and it indicates a particular relationship between living organisms or species and their environment. To say that they are adapted means no less but also no more than that they have been able to survive given the conditions and the constraints of the world in which they happen to be living.\nIn other words, they have managed to evolve a fit or, as I prefer to say, their physical characteristics and their ways of behaving have so far proven viable in their environment. \n\nPiaget took the notion of adaptation out of the biological context and turned it into the cornerstone of his “genetic epistemology.” He had realized early on that whatever knowledge was, it was not a “copy” of reality. The relationship of viable biological organisms to their environment provided a means to reformulate the relationship between the cognitive subject’s conceptual structures and that subject’s experiential world.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery3210434043887701232032":^°°,^"jQuery3210434043887701232032":^°°,^"jQuery3210434043887701232032":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563877013334°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Eitjn1doih","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ","startOffset":964,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ","endOffset":1209°Ӻ,"quote":"Knowledge, then, could be treated, not as a more or less accurate representation of external things, situations, and events, but rather as a mapping of actions and conceptual operations that had proven viable in the knowing subject’s experience.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery3210434043887701232032":^°°Ӻ,"text":"Knowledge, then, could be treated, not as a more or less accurate representation of external things, situations, and events, but rather as a mapping of actions and conceptual operations that had proven viable in the knowing subject’s experience.","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1563876991950°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Gkvf0wh3s1","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ2Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ2Ӻ","endOffset":889°Ӻ,"quote":"The use Piaget makes of the notion of adaptation is therefore not the same as that suggested by the contemporary school of thought that goes by the name of “Evolutionary Epistemology.” Unlike this school that formed around the work of Konrad Lorenz, in Piaget’s constructivist theory one cannot draw conclusions about the character of the real world from an organism’s adaptedness or the viability of schemes of action. In his view, what we see, hear, and feel, i.e. our sensory world, is the result of our own perceptual activities and therefore specific to our ways of perceiving and conceiving. Knowledge, for him, arises from actions and the agent’s reflection upon them. The actions take place in an environment and are grounded on and directed at objects that constitute the organism’s experiential world, not “things in themselves” that have an independent existence.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery3210434043887701232032":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563883102572°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Icz56bfc0w","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ5Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ5Ӻ","endOffset":1042°Ӻ,"quote":"As I have said many times, the need to adjust what one considers the “correct” meanings of the words one uses does not end with childhood. It happens over and over again that we discover, after many years of successfully using a given word, that we use it in a situation where the meaning we have attributed to it does not seem compatible with the meaning it appears to have for other users of the language. A dictionary will in many cases resolve the problem — and, in doing so, confirm the illusion that meanings are, after all, fixed entities that do not depend on individual usage. But a moment’s thought on how anyone acquires the meaning of a word would indeed reveal that this is an illusion. The dictionary presents definitions and examples that invariably consist of other words which give rise to meanings only in so far as the reader interprets them. Such interpretation can be done only in terms of the chunks of perceptual and conceptual experience the individual reader has associated with the dictionary’s words.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery3210434043887701232032":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563883372931°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Km2wat9pdg","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ","startOffset":771,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ","endOffset":909°Ӻ,"quote":"At best one may observe that in a given number of situations their constructs seem to function in the same way, i.e. they seem compatible.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery3210434043887701232032":^°°Ӻ,"text":"At best one may observe that in a given number of situations their constructs seem to function in the same way, i.e. they seem compatible.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1563883322095°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"M3oefrropl","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ","startOffset":200,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ","endOffset":347°Ӻ,"quote":"If two people share a room, there is one room and both live in it. If they share a bowl of cherries, none of the cherries is eaten by both persons.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery3210434043887701232032":^°°Ӻ,"text":"If two people share a room, there is one room and both live in it. If they share a bowl of cherries, none of the cherries is eaten by both persons.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Beispiel3","data_creacio":1563883251277°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"N6hbjgfncj","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ","endOffset":200°Ӻ,"quote":"This issue has recently been somewhat confused by talk of “shared knowledge” and “shared meanings.” Such talk is often misleading because there are strikingly different ways of sharing.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery3210434043887701232032":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563883259923°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Revr82oshc","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ5Ӻ","startOffset":1042,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ5Ӻ","endOffset":1352°Ӻ,"quote":"Hence, no matter how one looks at it, an analysis of meanings always leads to individual experience and the social process of accommodating the links between words and chunks of that experience until the individual deems they are compatible with the usage and the linguistic and behavioral responses of others.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery3210434043887701232032":^°°Ӻ,"text":"Hence, no matter how one looks at it, an analysis of meanings always leads to individual experience and the social process of accommodating the links between words and chunks of that experience until the individual deems they are compatible with the usage and the linguistic and behavioral responses of others.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1563883354194°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"S4oedfosh5","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ3Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ3Ӻ","endOffset":1365°Ӻ,"quote":"From this point of view, the notion of environment is obviously not the ordinary one. In the common sense description of our world, the environment is what surrounds all of us and we think of it as existing as such, whether we happen to be in it or not. In the constructivist model, “environment” has two quite distinct meanings. On the one hand, when we speak of ourselves, it refers to the totality of permanent objects and their relations that we have abstracted from the flow of our experience. On the other, whenever we focus our attention on a particular item, “environment” refers to the surroundings of the item we have isolated, and we tend to forget that both the item and its surroundings are parts of our own experiential field and not an observer independent “objective” world. \nThis, I believe, is a crucial aspect to consider if we want to approach teaching and education from the constructivist position. Too often teaching strategies and procedures seem to spring from the naive assumption that what we ourselves perceive and infer from our perceptions is there, ready-made, for the students to pick up, if only they had the will to do so. This overlooks the basic point that the way we segment the flow of our experience, and the way we relate the pieces we have isolated, is and necessarily remains an essentially subjective matter.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery3210434043887701232032":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563883208838°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Zcoxc69a3l","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ2Ӻ","startOffset":889,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ2Ӻ","endOffset":1125°Ӻ,"quote":"Hence, when Piaget speaks of interaction, this does not imply an organism that interacts with objects as they “really” are, but rather a cognitive subject that is dealing with previously constructed perceptual and conceptual structures.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery3210434043887701232032":^°°Ӻ,"text":"Hence, when Piaget speaks of interaction, this does not imply an organism that interacts with objects as they “really” are, but rather a cognitive subject that is dealing with previously constructed perceptual and conceptual structures.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1563883056095°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Frhb3rw86n","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ7Ӻ","startOffset":1189,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ7Ӻ","endOffset":1780°Ӻ,"quote":"That is to say, no matter how hard investigators try to adapt their analyses to the “foreign” ways of children, the model they build up will always be a model constructed out of concepts that are necessarily the investigators’. Because children’s ways of thinking are never directly accessible, the investigators’ model can never be compared to a child’s thought in order to determine whether there is or is not a perfect match. The most one can hope for is that the model fits whatever observations one has made and, more importantly, that it remains viable in the face of new observations.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery3210092476566737965452":^°°Ӻ,"text":"That is to say, no matter how hard investigators try to adapt their analyses to the “foreign” ways of children, the model they build up will always be a model constructed out of concepts that are necessarily the investigators’. Because children’s ways of thinking are never directly accessible, the investigators’ model can never be compared to a child’s thought in order to determine whether there is or is not a perfect match. The most one can hope for is that the model fits whatever observations one has made and, more importantly, that it remains viable in the face of new observations.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1563884840369°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Gafk6bxja9","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ","endOffset":1307°Ӻ,"quote":"Traditionally, there has been a certain amount of detachment between teachers of mathematics and cognitively oriented educational scientists who endeavored to develop theories about the learning of mathematics. At present, however, there are signs of a rapprochement, at least on the part of some of the scientists, who have come to realize that their theories must ultimately be evaluated according to how much they can contribute to the improvement of educational practice. Healthy though this realization is, it at once raises problems of its own. At the outset there is the research scientists’ inherent fear of getting bogged down in so many practical considerations that it will no longer be possible to come up with a theory that may satisfy their minimum requirements of generality and elegance. Then, when scientists do come up with a tentative theory, there is the difficulty of applying it in such a way that its practical usefulness is demonstrated. This would require either scientists’ direct involvement in teaching or \tthe professional teachers’ willingness and freedom to become familiar with the theory and to incorporate it into actual teaching practice for a certain length of time. In both cases, it will help if scientists and teachers can establish a consensual domain.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery3210092476566737965452":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563884552112°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Gdvkufdrum","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ6Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ6Ӻ","endOffset":324°Ӻ,"quote":"Teachers may be predominantly interested in the progress of the individual children they are teaching; but their assessment of progress and, indeed, their very job as teachers would become practically impossible if their method of teaching mathematics had to be adapted in all details to each individual child.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery3210092476566737965452":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563884819157°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Gotorp36to","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ5Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ5Ӻ","endOffset":1114°Ӻ,"quote":"Both educational scientists and teachers in the field of mathematics education try to model the children’s mathematical reality and how that reality may be cognitively built up piece by piece. The first, the scientists, may be mainly interested in establishing the hard core of a mathematics learning theory that would be applicable to as large a number of children as possible, but the viability of that theory, to quote Lakatos again, depends on “confirmations or ‘verifications’ that sustain a scientific research program. ” Consequently, in order to “confirm” or “verify” their theory, the scientists must “test” it by observing individuals. But – and this is crucial from the cognitive point of view – the tests in this context do not primarily concern the level of performance of new children but rather the question of whether or not the model can be maintained in the face of observations and teaching experiments with new children. However, it is not only in the context of justification but also in the context of re-invention that the scientific investigators need to observe individuals.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery3210092476566737965452":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563884727217°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"I23sae3dn3","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ","startOffset":1307,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ","endOffset":1439°Ӻ,"quote":"In other words, they must come to share some basic ideas on the process of education and the teaching of mathematics in particular.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery3210092476566737965452":^°°Ӻ,"text":"In other words, they must come to share some basic ideas on the process of education and the teaching of mathematics in particular.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1563883533364°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Ih0f4dwh4t","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ7Ӻ","startOffset":139,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ7Ӻ","endOffset":1189°Ӻ,"quote":"The situation is extreme when the work involves numbers and mathematical operations and aims at developing some insight into how individual children think about numbers and how they operate with them. Anyone who has seriously tried to investigate what actually goes on in children’s heads when they are struggling to solve an addition or subtraction problem at the limit of their present capability will have realized that the children’s mathematical world is indeed outlandish from the adult’s point of view. \nYet, children who have not been totally alienated from the number game and have at least a modicum of motivation do not act randomly. They do proceed according to some method, even if that method would seem unorthodox to the experienced reckoner. To get an inkling of what that method might be, investigators cannot but use their own imagination and try to conceive a reasonable path that might connect such manifestations of children’s operating as can be observed, with steps that could possibly lead to an answer to the given question.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery3210092476566737965452":^°°,^"jQuery3210092476566737965452":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563884900074°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Ito9w9ufjm","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ8Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ8Ӻ","endOffset":1518°Ӻ,"quote":"There is no denying the uncertainty inherent in all conjectures about another’s mental states and processes. Yet, it would be foolish to say that, because their accuracy is inherently uncertain, such conjectures should be considered useless. This inherent uncertainty pertains not only to psychology and its investigations of the mind but also to the “hardest” of the sciences (cf. Popper, 1963). In this respect, then, a cognitively oriented educational methodology differs radically from behavioristically oriented ones. If the educator’s objective is the generation of certain more or less specific behaviors in the student, the educator sees no need to ask what, if anything, might be going on in the student’s head. Whenever the student can be made to produce the desired behaviors in the situations with which they have been associated, the learning process will be deemed successful. Students do not have to see why the particular actions lead to a result that is considered “correct”; what matters is that they produce such a result. From our point of view, this exclusive focus on performance differentiates what we would call training from the kind of teaching that aims at understanding (cf. von Glasersfeld, 1989). \nIn contrast, cognitively oriented educators will not be primarily interested in observable results, but rather in what students think they are doing and why they believe that their way of operating will lead to a solution. The rationale of this shift of focus is simply this:","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321064532752634131472":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563892076772°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Ju9i7zdhyu","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ3Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ3Ӻ","endOffset":1050°Ӻ,"quote":"For Lakatos, theories were hypothetical-deductive systems and the theoretical activity of the scientist constituted the primary source of progress of a research program. From the constructivist perspective, one particular aspect of this position must be stressed. Even the hard core of a research program (i. e., those beliefs that the program takes for granted) should not be considered as eternal truth. The history of science shows that, no matter how successful research programs are, they eventually collapse and are superseded by others with different hard cores. In fact, the knowledge constituted by a hard core is viable as long as it serves the purposes and helps to attain, with the help of the models in its “protective belt”, the goals of the established community of researchers. When it ceases to do this and, in Lakatos’ words, “degenerates” – either because some anomalies can no longer be disregarded for practical reasons, or because the goals of the community are shifted-a new research program must be generated.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery3210092476566737965452":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563884640163°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"N5ujgpvawi","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ8Ӻ","startOffset":1518,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ8Ӻ","endOffset":1976°Ӻ,"quote":"if one wants to generate understanding, the reasons why a student operates in a certain way are far more indicative of the student’s stage of conceptual development than whether or not these operations lead to a result that the teacher finds acceptable. Only when teachers have some notion of the conceptual structures with which students operate, can they try to intervene in ways that might lead students to change something in these conceptual structures.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321064532752634131472":^°°Ӻ,"text":"if one wants to generate understanding, the reasons why a student operates in a certain way are far more indicative of the student’s stage of conceptual development than whether or not these operations lead to a result that the teacher finds acceptable. Only when teachers have some notion of the conceptual structures with which students operate, can they try to intervene in ways that might lead students to change something in these conceptual structures.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1563892052867°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Nprpymwev6","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ9Ӻ","startOffset":919,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ9Ӻ","endOffset":1046°Ӻ,"quote":"therefore, they need first of all a plausible model of the conceptual structures with which students are operating at the time.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321064532752634131472":^°°Ӻ,"text":"therefore, they need first of all a plausible model of the conceptual structures with which students are operating at the time.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1563892095021°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Oekr7le9yk","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ","endOffset":1364°Ӻ,"quote":"If both educational scientists and mathematics teachers want to profit from this shift in the psychological paradigm, they must come to regard the learner as a relatively autonomous entity, an intelligent entity that is first and foremost concerned with making sense (i. e. some kind of order) in its own experiential world. This conviction forms the hard core of a new research program in truly cognitive psychology as well as the basis of a teaching methodology that is significantly different from the traditional one. In the traditional view, the child was a relatively malleable entity that could be shaped by good examples, by practice and drill, and above all by the judicious allocation of reinforcement. The really effective teachers, of course, have always known – at least since Socrates – that examples, drill, and overt reinforcement are quite effective in producing a desired behavior; but precisely because they were good teachers they also knew that generating understanding was a worthier educational objective than merely modifying behavior. To generate understanding is also a much more difficult objective to attain. To some extent, however, this greater difficulty is compensated by the fact that understanding is self-reinforcing because, from the children’s point of view, it leads to making sense of their experiential world.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery3210092476566737965452":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563884693786°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Pprt9zjifg","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ9Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ9Ӻ","endOffset":919°Ӻ,"quote":"When such notions regarding states and operations in anther person’s head come to be organized in a coherent structure, they constitute hypothetical models. Though the states and operations that concern educational scientists are essentially the same that concern teachers, they will be organized somewhat differently because the goals of the two disciplines are not quite the same. The researchers want to build up a model that illustrates a way in which students construct mathematical knowledge. Because it would be much more useful to have one model, rather than several different ones, researchers must focus on features which, they believe, will be widely generalizable. Above all, they must establish patterns of change and development, and basic principles of how change and development may be induced. Teachers, on the other hand, are primarily concerned with the progress of groups of students;","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321064532752634131472":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563892116245°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Qf1fiu9hmu","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ2Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ2Ӻ","endOffset":584°Ӻ,"quote":"In contrast to this, scientists who have founded and advanced their work on the revolutionary conceptual changes brought about by relativity, quantum mechanics, genetic epistemology, and cybernetics tend to be extremely wary of the notions of truth and objectivity in the ontological sense. They have become very conscious of the fact that observation is a generative rather than a passive process, that all data are “theory-laden,” and that, as von Foerster (1978) so neatly put it, “objectivity is the illusion that observation could take place without an observer.”","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery3210092476566737965452":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563884585325°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Ts6m6p4c9i","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ5Ӻ","startOffset":1114,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ5Ӻ","endOffset":1687°Ӻ,"quote":"In order to formulate even the most tentative model of cognitive change, educational scientists must witness the growth of mathematical knowledge in particular children and clarify and substantiate their interpretations by means of deliberate interventions. Conceptual analysis alone is simply not sufficient as a source of insight in model building. It is only on the basis of models of particular children, that a more general model can eventually be abstracted – and the models of particular children are a natural bridge between educational scientists and the teachers.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery3210092476566737965452":^°°Ӻ,"text":"In order to formulate even the most tentative model of cognitive change, educational scientists must witness the growth of mathematical knowledge in particular children and clarify and substantiate their interpretations by means of deliberate interventions. Conceptual analysis alone is simply not sufficient as a source of insight in model building. It is only on the basis of models of particular children, that a more general model can eventually be abstracted – and the models of particular children are a natural bridge between educational scientists and the teachers.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1563884717833°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"V003cd9ksd","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ","startOffset":1364,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ","endOffset":1551°Ӻ,"quote":"In adopting the new, cognitive paradigm, then, it becomes imperative that both teachers and researchers acquire some theoretical notions of how this “making sense” can be conceptualized.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery3210092476566737965452":^°°Ӻ,"text":" In adopting the new, cognitive paradigm, then, it becomes imperative that both teachers and researchers acquire some theoretical notions of how this “making sense” can be conceptualized.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1563884669087°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Vzvbroqbxa","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ7Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ7Ӻ","endOffset":138°Ӻ,"quote":"Working with children is in many ways like working with foreigners with whom one has only fragments of a language in common.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery3210092476566737965452":^°°Ӻ,"text":"Working with children is in many ways like working with foreigners with whom one has only fragments of a language in common.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Beispiel3","data_creacio":1563884860654°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Wlmz0nwwa6","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ3Ӻ","startOffset":1050,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ3Ӻ","endOffset":1368°Ӻ,"quote":"A model, then, “simulates reality”; it is a conceptual construct that is treated as though it gave an accurate picture of the real world, but has the actual function of making experimental results and other experiential elements compatible with the general assumptions that are inherent in the research program’s core.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery3210092476566737965452":^°°,^"jQuery3210092476566737965452":^°°Ӻ,"text":"A model, then, “simulates reality”; it is a conceptual construct that is treated as though it gave an accurate picture of the real world, but has the actual function of making experimental results and other experiential elements compatible with the general assumptions that are inherent in the research program’s core.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1563884625586°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Wn9qz8ed09","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ2Ӻ","startOffset":584,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ2Ӻ","endOffset":831°Ӻ,"quote":"Just as the interpretation of a piece of language is always guided by the individual interpreter’s experience and expectations, so the interpretation of what one observes is always governed by some theory one has in mind and a goal one has chosen.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery3210092476566737965452":^°°Ӻ,"text":"Just as the interpretation of a piece of language is always guided by the individual interpreter’s experience and expectations, so the interpretation of what one observes is always governed by some theory one has in mind and a goal one has chosen.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1563884576593°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Ygtpo8ulgm","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ6Ӻ","startOffset":325,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ6Ӻ","endOffset":888°Ӻ,"quote":"Teachers, therefore, need an at least partially generalized theory and a model of the learner that is general enough to serve as a basis for the establishment of more than one individual model. Ideally, then, the teachers’ models of individual students will be instantiations of the educational scientists’ more general model of mathematics learning; and conversely, the individual models the teachers construct for individual students will be a continuous testing ground for the theoretical assumptions the scientists have incorporated in the more general model.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery3210092476566737965452":^°°,^"jQuery3210092476566737965452":^°°,^"jQuery3210092476566737965452":^°°Ӻ,"text":"Teachers, therefore, need an at least partially generalized theory and a model of the learner that is general enough to serve as a basis for the establishment of more than one individual model. Ideally, then, the teachers’ models of individual students will be instantiations of the educational scientists’ more general model of mathematics learning; and conversely, the individual models the teachers construct for individual students will be a continuous testing ground for the theoretical assumptions the scientists have incorporated in the more general model.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1563884810252°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"A8lufo6hwa","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ6Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ6Ӻ","endOffset":709°Ӻ,"quote":"In that first section of the book he does, of course, expound his theory of the genesis of the object concept, while the subsequent sections deal with the concepts of space, causality, time and, finally, the universe. Though he treats the construction of these concepts sequentially, he makes it very clear that he does not consider them sequential in the child’s development. In his view, one conceptual construction gives rise to all these concepts. In other words, experiential objects, space, causality, time— and I would add the concepts of change, motion, substance, identity, and self—all stem from one common initial construction and are therefore connate and inextricably interrelated.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321088204143127806022":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563895870974°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"B4xmtlx8ai","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ20Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ20Ӻ","endOffset":390°Ӻ,"quote":"When I visually distinguish a hand from the writing pad and the table on which it lies, I carry out exactly the same kinds of operations as when I distinguish the coffee cup from the table on which it stands, or the picture from the wall on which it hangs, or the cardinal outside my window from the branch on which it happens to be perched and from the rest of the landscape.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321088204143127806022":^°°Ӻ,"text":"When I visually distinguish a hand from the writing pad and the table on which it lies, I carry out exactly the same kinds of operations as when I distinguish the coffee cup from the table on which it stands, or the picture from the wall on which it hangs, or the cardinal outside my window from the branch on which it happens to be perched and from the rest of the landscape.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Beispiel3","data_creacio":1563901117317°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Bo421c5wz9","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ9Ӻ","startOffset":534,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ9Ӻ","endOffset":1181°Ӻ,"quote":"This may not be nearly as paradoxical as it sounds. The linguistic example of names may once more help to illuminate the point. Having established four-leggedness as the invariant critical feature of the complex experience associated with the word dog, the child focuses on four-leggedness and uses the word dog whenever that feature is available among the experiential material. That means that the child will assimilate all sorts of items—many of which he would later call cat, horse, sheep or cow—and in doing so, he will disregard the experiential elements that might distinguish them from the original experience associated with the word dog.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321088204143127806022":^°°,^"jQuery321088204143127806022":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563896148727°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Cczcstcm68","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ19Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ19Ӻ","endOffset":1236°Ӻ,"quote":"Perhaps the most serious obstacle that has impeded traditional psychology from arriving at a plausible analysis of the concept of “self” is the assumption that the dichotomy between an organism and its environment is basically the same as the dichotomy between an experiencing subject and what it experiences. As argued in the section “Observer and Observed,” the distinction between an organism and its environment can be made only by an observer of the organism. The organism itself has no access to distal data, to items outside itself. But with the construction of permanent objects, the organism externalizes some of the invariants it abstracts from its experience and treats them, from then on, as independent external items (see “Equivalence and Continuity,” above). This externalization, as we have seen, goes hand in hand with the establishing of internal representations or concepts, and this dual development of objects, which are “perceptual,” and concepts, which are “representational,” leads to a sharp division between two forms of experience, one “external” and the other “internal.” (There are, of course, illusions, dreams, and hallucinations that, from the subject’s point of view, blur that division.)","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321088204143127806022":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563901086551°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"D0j0gt3d6j","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ2Ӻ","endOffset":281°Ӻ,"quote":"If the feedback model is to be of use in the study of the more complex forms of behavior we see in animals, and in humans, we shall have to give it some capability for learning. In Craik’s words (1966, p. 59),\nWe should now have to conceive a machine capable of modification of its own mechanism so as to establish that mechanism which was successful in solving the problem at hand, and the suppression of alternative mechanisms. Although this may seem a great demand, we can be comforted by the reflexion that animals and man can only modify their activity within the limits imposed by their anatomy, or the materials and machines available; though it is a great demand, it is not an infinitely great one.\nIn a sense, the solution lies in this very early statement of the problem. It consists in establishing and recording for every kind of error signal (problem) “that mechanism which was successful in solving the problem.” In other words, if there are several kinds of disturbance and, consequently, several kinds of error signals, the system has to discover which of the activities in its behavioral repertoire is most likely to correct a particular error signal. On the simplest level this can be achieved only through inductive inference.\nA living system, due to its circular organization, is an inductive system and functions always in a predictive manner; what occurred once will occur again. Its organization (both genetic and otherwise) is conservative and repeats only that which works (Maturana, 1970, pp. 15–16).","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321061599690319170592":^°°,^"jQuery321061599690319170592":^°°,^"jQuery321061599690319170592":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563895378027°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Dd1wdooq3z","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ1Ӻ","startOffset":717,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ1Ӻ","endOffset":1035°Ӻ,"quote":"In other words, if there are several kinds of disturbance and, consequently, several kinds of error signals, the system has to discover which of the activities in its behavioral repertoire is most likely to correct a particular error signal. On the simplest level this can be achieved only through inductive inference.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321018445904016442962":^°°Ӻ,"text":"In other words, if there are several kinds of disturbance and, consequently, several kinds of error signals, the system has to discover which of the activities in its behavioral repertoire is most likely to correct a particular error signal. On the simplest level this can be achieved only through inductive inference.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1563894666018°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Ddnyagkamn","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ13Ӻ","startOffset":862,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ13Ӻ","endOffset":1308°Ӻ,"quote":"It allows us to proceed much as a bricklayer, who can devote all his energy and attention to the creation of a wall or an arch, without ever stopping to ask where the bricks he is using came from or how they were made. And just as the characteristics of the bricks (e.g., shape and size) make it impossible for the bricklayer to build certain structures, so the ready-made conceptual building blocks impose constraints on any future construction.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321088204143127806022":^°°Ӻ,"text":"It allows us to proceed much as a bricklayer, who can devote all his energy and attention to the creation of a wall or an arch, without ever stopping to ask where the bricks he is using came from or how they were made. And just as the characteristics of the bricks (e.g., shape and size) make it impossible for the bricklayer to build certain structures, so the ready-made conceptual building blocks impose constraints on any future construction.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1563898625529°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"E31cg4n600","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ10Ӻ","startOffset":1733,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ10Ӻ","endOffset":2040°Ӻ,"quote":"To refer once more to the feedback model, one might say that assimilation, insofar as it adjusts sensory signals, reduces the generation of error signals. Accommodation, on the other hand, occurs only when there is a discrepancy or disturbance for which the organism does not yet have an established remedy.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321088204143127806022":^°°Ӻ,"text":"To refer once more to the feedback model, one might say that assimilation, insofar as it adjusts sensory signals, reduces the generation of error signals. Accommodation, on the other hand, occurs only when there is a discrepancy or disturbance for which the organism does not yet have an established remedy.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1563896168679°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Eaw8nug54n","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ24Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ24Ӻ","endOffset":814°Ӻ,"quote":"Sketchy and incomplete though they are, I hope the preceding paragraphs have shown that there are several relatively independent sources from which facets of the self percept can be developed. Much remains to be worked out; above all, the detailed analysis of the process by which these facets become integrated into what we so strongly feel to be a unitary concept of our self. While we can work out a plausible model for the self as an entity of our sensorimotor world of experience, this model cannot throw any light on what we feel to be our self as experiencing entity. The reason lies in the very structure of our conception of knowledge. In the Western tradition of science and rational explanation, knowledge by its very nature requires a dichotomy between the knower and the things he knows.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321088204143127806022":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563901470249°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Egekgp55vu","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ7Ӻ","startOffset":994,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ7Ӻ","endOffset":1293°Ӻ,"quote":"There seems to be no way around the assumption that, as far as the organism is concerned, an “object” must be a construct, actively abstracted from a number of experiences by holding on to a somewhat flexible constellation of characteristics and allowing each of them to vary within a certain range.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321088204143127806022":^°°Ӻ,"text":"There seems to be no way around the assumption that, as far as the organism is concerned, an “object” must be a construct, actively abstracted from a number of experiences by holding on to a somewhat flexible constellation of characteristics and allowing each of them to vary within a certain range.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1563895908466°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Ek33dv7qzk","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ11Ӻ","startOffset":1080,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ11Ӻ","endOffset":1332°Ӻ,"quote":"Hence this use of an invariant scheme is by no means a manifestation of the concept of object permanence, because its invariance arises from and consists in the repetition of an activity and does not yet involve the invariance of an independent object.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321088204143127806022":^°°Ӻ,"text":"Hence this use of an invariant scheme is by no means a manifestation of the concept of object permanence, because its invariance arises from and consists in the repetition of an activity and does not yet involve the invariance of an independent object.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1563896238908°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Eqgunictjl","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ23Ӻ","startOffset":541,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ23Ӻ","endOffset":850°Ӻ,"quote":"Without ever perceiving it, we know that it is at the heart of whatever continuity or invariant we construct in our perceptual world. As teenagers, at one time or another, many of us stood in front of a looking glass and wondered: where am I? it is a question we are still unable to answer when we are adults.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321088204143127806022":^°°,^"jQuery321088204143127806022":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563901423662°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"F8plub7cte","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ8Ӻ","startOffset":853,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ8Ӻ","endOffset":1545°Ӻ,"quote":"Categorizing experiential objects in the particular way prescribed by the language the child has to acquire is, of course, not quite the same as deriving an object-concept from two or more experiences (see “Equivalence and Continuity,” below). But in both cases differentiation and abstraction seem to play much the same role. In the naming of objects it is the conventional nature of linguistic expressions that compels the child to structure his concepts in a certain way. In the construction of recursively usable object-concepts it is the organism’s active search for recurrence and regularity that compels it to create “sameness” by focusing on similarities and disregarding differences.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321088204143127806022":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563896055972°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Fb6tslteaz","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ12Ӻ","startOffset":1057,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ12Ӻ","endOffset":1425°Ӻ,"quote":"Now, if the invariant can be used on the representational level, without an activity, it becomes like a program or a subroutine that is invariant in that it is stored somewhere in a memory from which it can be retrieved. It is this change of status that gives rise to the concepts of permanence and of identity, a further step in the construction of permanent objects.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321088204143127806022":^°°Ӻ,"text":"Now, if the invariant can be used on the representational level, without an activity, it becomes like a program or a subroutine that is invariant in that it is stored somewhere in a memory from which it can be retrieved. It is this change of status that gives rise to the concepts of permanence and of identity, a further step in the construction of permanent objects.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1563896291702°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"G8314lh3pp","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ10Ӻ","startOffset":1541,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ10Ӻ","endOffset":1733°Ӻ,"quote":"I hope this brief exposition of the complex interaction of assimilatory and accommodatory processes has indicated that this part of Piaget’s theory is compatible with the cybernetic approach.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321088204143127806022":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563896220825°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Gs82cvn8ty","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ17Ӻ/pӶ1Ӻ","startOffset":1185,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ17Ӻ/pӶ1Ӻ","endOffset":1322°Ӻ,"quote":"For many five-year-olds, for instance, the sun today and the sun yesterday are not yet one and the same individual (Piaget, 1971, p. 87).","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321088204143127806022":^°°Ӻ,"text":"For many five-year-olds, for instance, the sun today and the sun yesterday are not yet one and the same individual (Piaget, 1971, p. 87).","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Beispiel3","data_creacio":1563899770807°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Gtgp6gcjgz","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ25Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ25Ӻ","endOffset":719°Ӻ,"quote":"As a metaphor—and I stress that it is intended as a metaphor—the concept of an invariant that arises out of mutually or cyclically balancing changes may help us to approach the concept of self. In cybernetics this metaphor is implemented in the “closed loop,” the circular arrangement of feedback mechanisms that maintain a given value within certain limits. They work towards an invariant, but the invariant is achieved not by a steady resistance, the way a rock stands unmoved in the winds but by compensation over time. Wherever we happen to look in a feedback loop, we find the present act pitted against the immediate past, but already on the way to being compensated itself by the immediate future.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321088204143127806022":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563901528632°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Gv92fgoj8x","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ8Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ8Ӻ/pӶ1Ӻ","endOffset":448°Ӻ,"quote":"Suppose a very young child applies the word dog to every four-legged creature he sees. He may have abstracted a limited set of attributes and created a large category, but his abstraction will now show up in his vocabulary. Parents will not provide him with a conventional name for his category, e.g., quadruped, but instead will require him to narrow his use of dog to its proper range...\nThe child who spontaneously hits on the category four-legged animals will be required to give it up in favor of dogs, cats, horses, cows, and the like ... The schoolboy who learns the word quadruped has abstracted from differentiated and named subor- dinates. The child he was abstracted through a failure to differentiate. Abstraction after differentiation may be the mature process, and abstraction from a failure to differentiate the primitive.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321088204143127806022":^°°,^"jQuery321088204143127806022":^°°,^"jQuery321088204143127806022":^°°Ӻ,"text":"Suppose a very young child applies the word dog to every four-legged creature he sees. He may have abstracted a limited set of attributes and created a large category, but his abstraction will now show up in his vocabulary. Parents will not provide him with a conventional name for his category, e.g., quadruped, but instead will require him to narrow his use of dog to its proper range...\n\nThe child who spontaneously hits on the category four-legged animals will be required to give it up in favor of dogs, cats, horses, cows, and the like ... The schoolboy who learns the word quadruped has abstracted from differentiated and named subor- dinates. The child he was abstracted through a failure to differentiate. Abstraction after differentiation may be the mature process, and abstraction from a failure to differentiate the primitive. ","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Beispiel3","data_creacio":1563896045425°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"H3e51o6egn","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ","startOffset":527,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ","endOffset":880°Ӻ,"quote":"Here I shall confine myself to pointing out that the kind of knowledge our simple organism acquires by installing connections between error signals and activities is, indeed, a form of construction, and since it deals exclusively with the proximal data of the organism’s own subjective experience, one would be justified in calling it wholly subjective.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321088204143127806022":^°°Ӻ,"text":"Here I shall confine myself to pointing out that the kind of knowledge our simple organism acquires by installing connections between error signals and activities is, indeed, a form of construction, and since it deals exclusively with the proximal data of the organism’s own subjective experience, one would be justified in calling it wholly subjective.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1563895666281°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"H9ojjvlqal","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ24Ӻ","startOffset":815,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ24Ӻ","endOffset":1043°Ӻ,"quote":"In other words, we can come to know only what we consider to be in some sense separate from our knowing selves. By questioning something, by the very act of asking what it is, we have already set our self, the questioner, apart.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321088204143127806022":^°°,^"jQuery321088204143127806022":^°°Ӻ,"text":"In other words, we can come to know only what we consider to be in some sense separate from our knowing selves. By questioning something, by the very act of asking what it is, we have already set our self, the questioner, apart.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1563901453225°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Hk69rq47nz","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ19Ӻ","startOffset":1236,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ19Ӻ","endOffset":1480°Ӻ,"quote":"Both the internal and the external, however, are explicitly experience, and the division between them, therefore, is a division between two types of experience and not the division between an experiencing subject and the objects it experiences.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321088204143127806022":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1563900136055°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Hl1my5l736","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ17Ӻ","startOffset":1924,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ17Ӻ","endOffset":2400°Ӻ,"quote":"As long as the linear sequence of attention focused on sensory signals is the only dimension of the child’s experience, it is logically impossible to connect two experiential items across an interval during which none of the signals constituting them is continuous. Such a connection has to be created outside the ongoing experiential sequence, so that it can subsist, as it were, in parallel and is not broken by the actual sensory experiences that occur during the internal.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321088204143127806022":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1563899318387°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Hq4m25toh1","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ23Ӻ","startOffset":477,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ23Ӻ","endOffset":540°Ӻ,"quote":"This central item, the experiencer himself, remains mysterious.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321088204143127806022":^°°Ӻ,"text":"This central item, the experiencer himself, remains mysterious.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1563901415475°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"I27jtuivlz","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ6Ӻ","startOffset":709,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ6Ӻ","endOffset":1006°Ӻ,"quote":"Hence, mention of “steps” in subsequent paragraphs does not imply a chronological but a logical sequence. There are certain steps that are logically indispensable prerequisites for others. But the logic is our logic, an observer’s logic, and as such it applies to a model the observer is building.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321088204143127806022":^°°Ӻ,"text":"Hence, mention of “steps” in subsequent paragraphs does not imply a chronological but a logical sequence. There are certain steps that are logically indispensable prerequisites for others. But the logic is our logic, an observer’s logic, and as such it applies to a model the observer is building.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1563895861681°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"I4hz7ma47u","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ","endOffset":527°Ӻ,"quote":"For an observer, of course, it may be plausible to establish all sorts of relations between the organism’s “output” (i.e. the effect of its activities on the environment) and its “input” (i.e. the environmental “stimuli” assumed to cause the organism’s sensory signals). But these items may not be quite as straightforward as they appear. I have elsewhere argued for a radical constructivist view of knowledge (von Glasersfeld, 1975, 1976, 1977; Richards and von Glasersfeld, 1978) on all levels of organization.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321088204143127806022":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563895678374°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Idrp87ovae","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ7Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ7Ӻ","endOffset":566°Ӻ,"quote":"Even if we wanted to believe that perception is nothing but an organism’s internal replication of a ready-made external world in which objects are given, we would have to explain how such an internal replication is constituted. This question runs into the same difficulty regardless of whether it is asked by a realist or by a constructivist. Neither can disregard the simple fact that an “object,” from the point of view of the experiencing organism (i.e., in terms of the organism’s sensory experience) is never quite the same on different occasions.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321088204143127806022":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563895969663°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"J9jqbrdr4b","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ15Ӻ","startOffset":887,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ15Ӻ","endOffset":1004°Ӻ,"quote":"Hence we may safely assume that attention can also shift between items when some or all of them are representational.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321088204143127806022":^°°Ӻ,"text":"Hence we may safely assume that attention can also shift between items when some or all of them are representational.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1563898756055°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Jcoy3u2rzx","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ1Ӻ","endOffset":716°Ӻ,"quote":"If the feedback model is to be of use in the study of the more complex forms of behavior we see in animals, and in humans, we shall have to give it some capability for learning. In Craik’s words (1966, p. 59),\nWe should now have to conceive a machine capable of modification of its own mechanism so as to establish that mechanism which was successful in solving the problem at hand, and the suppression of alternative mechanisms. Although this may seem a great demand, we can be comforted by the reflexion that animals and man can only modify their activity within the limits imposed by their anatomy, or the materials and machines available; though it is a great demand, it is not an infinitely great one.\nIn a sense, the solution lies in this very early statement of the problem. It consists in establishing and recording for every kind of error signal (problem) “that mechanism which was successful in solving the problem.”","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321018445904016442962":^°°,^"jQuery321018445904016442962":^°°,^"jQuery321018445904016442962":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563895065076°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Jfxfuijhx1","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ7Ӻ","startOffset":567,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ7Ӻ","endOffset":994°Ӻ,"quote":"For example, the visual experience that we consider an instance of a specific object is different every time. The object’s shape changes according to the angle, and its size according to the distance from which it is seen. Its color changes according to the illumination, and other parameters are no less variable according to changes in the context. What, then, constitutes the invariant object which the organism recognizes?","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321088204143127806022":^°°Ӻ,"text":"For example, the visual experience that we consider an instance of a specific object is different every time. The object’s shape changes according to the angle, and its size according to the distance from which it is seen. Its color changes according to the illumination, and other parameters are no less variable according to changes in the context. What, then, constitutes the invariant object which the organism recognizes?\n","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Beispiel3","data_creacio":1563895959622°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Js950dj36j","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ13Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ13Ӻ","endOffset":470°Ӻ,"quote":"The second development made possible by the introduction of the representational use of invariants is that they can now be used as building blocks for conceptual constructions that move further and further away from the raw material of sensory or motor signals. This shift constitutes one of the salient characteristics of all the “higher,” more sophisticated mental operations and it has consequences for epistemology far beyond the scope of this chapter.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321088204143127806022":^°°Ӻ,"text":"The second development made possible by the introduction of the representational use of invariants is that they can now be used as building blocks for conceptual constructions that move further and further away from the raw material of sensory or motor signals. This shift constitutes one of the salient characteristics of all the “higher,” more sophisticated mental operations and it has consequences for epistemology far beyond the scope of this chapter.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Beispiel3","data_creacio":1563898503926°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Jv9v5wdu9q","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ5Ӻ","startOffset":868,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ5Ӻ","endOffset":1180°Ӻ,"quote":"The rep- resentation, therefore, will have to be no more and no less than a hypothetical model of functions, entities, and events that could “explain” regularities in the organism’s experience. And as a cyberneticist would expect, there is no way to match the model against the “real” structure of the black box.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321088204143127806022":^°°Ӻ,"text":"The rep- resentation, therefore, will have to be no more and no less than a hypothetical model of functions, entities, and events that could “explain” regularities in the organism’s experience. And as a cyberneticist would expect, there is no way to match the model against the “real” structure of the black box.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1563895773061°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Kftaxg4kd3","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ20Ӻ","startOffset":391,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ20Ӻ","endOffset":980°Ӻ,"quote":"In all these cases I am recognizing certain objects to which I have attributed relative consistency (closure) and permanence. Having successfully externalized permanent objects, I am now experiencing them as parts of “distal reality.” From the purely visual point of view, the operations by means of which I separate objects from the rest of the visual field or “ground” are always the same kind. And the observer’s distinction between an organism and its environment is normally made in the visual field (which is not to say that such a distinction could not be made in the tactual mode).","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321088204143127806022":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563901132979°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Luok9sj7zd","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ9Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ9Ӻ","endOffset":205°Ӻ,"quote":"As observers, we may legitimately speak of the organism and its “external environment,” but the organism cannot make that distinction with regard to itself; it merely has its own experience.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321088204143127806022":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563896127884°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"M4xqecwszm","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ17Ӻ","startOffset":480,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ17Ӻ/pӶ1Ӻ","endOffset":1184°Ӻ,"quote":"How do we construct continuity across such enormous experiential gaps? I believe we acquire the ability in small steps.\nThe first step is to assume continuity of a composite whole on the strength of an experientially continuous part. We do this every time we watch a moving object that for a moment partially disappears and then comes into full sight again. In an infant’s early life, that is a frequent experience, since there are nearly always some visual obstacles in the immediate environment behind which parts of people disappear. Visual tracking is manifest very early and soon enables the infant to follow an item even when it wholly disappears for a moment (Bower, 1974). In that case it cannot be a visual part of the experiential item. Rather it is the proprioceptive signals generated by the tracking motion that supply the continuity. The essential feature, however, is the experiential continuity of some signal sequence that connects the percept that disappears with the percept that reappears, and that can hold the child’s attention so that no other item comes into focus. If there is no such sequence and, consequently, there is a refocusing of attention in the interval, the two experiential items will not be construed as one individual, no matter how similar they may be as percepts.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321088204143127806022":^°°,^"jQuery321088204143127806022":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563899854969°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Mr0ewqq6yn","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ10Ӻ/pӶ1Ӻ","startOffset":0,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ10Ӻ/pӶ1Ӻ","endOffset":796°Ӻ,"quote":"When an infant, for instance, assimilates some visual elements to the invariant pattern that, for him, constitutes a rattle, and grasps and shakes a piece of wood that happens to be within reach, then the absence of the auditory element expected to ensue may cause a discrepancy that cannot be eliminated by assimilation. In that case, attention is likely to be focused on any of the formerly disregarded visual or tactual elements by means of which the piece of wood could be discriminated from the rattle. Once the discrimination has occurred, the new elements, with or without some of the old ones, can be associated in an act of accommodation to form a novel scheme. This novel scheme, from then on, will serve as a relatively independent invariant for the assimilation of future experiences.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321088204143127806022":^°°Ӻ,"text":"When an infant, for instance, assimilates some visual elements to the invariant pattern that, for him, constitutes a rattle, and grasps and shakes a piece of wood that happens to be within reach, then the absence of the auditory element expected to ensue may cause a discrepancy that cannot be eliminated by assimilation. In that case, attention is likely to be focused on any of the formerly disregarded visual or tactual elements by means of which the piece of wood could be discriminated from the rattle. Once the discrimination has occurred, the new elements, with or without some of the old ones, can be associated in an act of accommodation to form a novel scheme. This novel scheme, from then on, will serve as a relatively independent invariant for the assimilation of future experiences. ","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Beispiel3","data_creacio":1563896207063°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"N2vhtsw614","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ10Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ10Ӻ","endOffset":743°Ӻ,"quote":"Piaget suggests this frequently by saying that the organism must be considered an active experiencer rather than a passive receiver of stimuli. In the excerpts quoted above, he is even more specific: the organism assimilates items in order to suck, look at, or grasp. These activities, like all others which the organism has or acquires, have a certain sequential pattern and usually lead to certain experiential results. They are procedures toward certain experiential goals. But to be attained, these goals require the support (i.e., the presence) of more or less specific elements of experience. And there may be occasions when the elements present could not be assimilated to conform to the expected results of the activity.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321088204143127806022":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563896214914°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"N54woncfr6","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ16Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ16Ӻ","endOffset":444°Ӻ,"quote":"An analysis of the actual procedure of comparison also has conceptual implications. If the direction of comparison is from item A to item B, in the sense that the characteristics found in A are then checked in B, item B may be considered the same (in the likeness sense) if no difference is registered in the checked char- acteristics. But in that case B may or may not have characteristics which are not represented at all in A.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321088204143127806022":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563899216075°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"N6xhovc3l5","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ14Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ14Ӻ","endOffset":821°Ӻ,"quote":"Earlier, we asked the question, “What constitutes the invariant object that the organism recognizes?” If we take this question without context, “invariant” clearly could be interpreted in two radically different ways. On the one hand, it could be a prototype, or template, by which the organism categorizes certain experiences as exemplars of the class represented by the invariant. This is the sense of object concept and it was then illustrated by the example from psycholinguistics. On the other hand, the “invariant” could be interpreted as an object in its own right that remains unchanged because it “exists” and is recognized as the selfsame individual every time it enters the organism’s field of experience. This is the sense of “invariant” that corresponds to the conception of object permanence.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321088204143127806022":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563898736431°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Nb7irjzmf6","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ17Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ17Ӻ","endOffset":147°Ӻ,"quote":"But consider a case in which there is no continuous succession at all but, nevertheless, we are able to construe individual identity.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321088204143127806022":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563899863945°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Nrxlcbrcl4","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ21Ӻ","startOffset":1065,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ21Ӻ","endOffset":1487°Ӻ,"quote":"The indispensable limitation of this hypothesizing is that the organism can operate only with its own proximal data, i.e., with signals that can be supposed to originate within it rather than with “information” originating in what from the observer’s point of view is the organism’s environment. I would also like to emphasize that this analysis is provisional and lays no claim to being definitive, let alone exhaustive.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321088204143127806022":^°°Ӻ,"text":" The indispensable limitation of this hypothesizing is that the organism can operate only with its own proximal data, i.e., with signals that can be supposed to originate within it rather than with “information” originating in what from the observer’s point of view is the organism’s environment. I would also like to emphasize that this analysis is provisional and lays no claim to being definitive, let alone exhaustive.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1563901185694°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Nsr28z6iul","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ23Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ23Ӻ","endOffset":477°Ӻ,"quote":"The child who stands in front of a looking glass, sticks out his tongue, and contorts his face into all sorts of grimaces gets a constant confirmation of this causal link. The mirror image is as obedient as his own limbs and can, thus, be integrated with the body percept, expanding it by providing visual access to otherwise invisible aspects. And like the body image, it is a visual percept, an item that is experienced not the item that does the experiencing.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321088204143127806022":^°°,^"jQuery321088204143127806022":^°°Ӻ,"text":"The child who stands in front of a looking glass, sticks out his tongue, and contorts his face into all sorts of grimaces gets a constant confirmation of this causal link. The mirror image is as obedient as his own limbs and can, thus, be integrated with the body percept, expanding it by providing visual access to otherwise invisible aspects. And like the body image, it is a visual percept, an item that is experienced not the item that does the experiencing. ","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Beispiel3","data_creacio":1563901398145°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Pa5p9mi0kr","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ17Ӻ","startOffset":147,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ17Ӻ","endOffset":479°Ӻ,"quote":"A well-fed brother whom one has not seen for 20 years may be bald and scrawny when he returns; he may have a different accent, his likes and dislikes may have changed, and what he now says about politics, art, and women may be incompatible with what one remembers of him. Yet one could still accept him as the self-same individual.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321088204143127806022":^°°Ӻ,"text":" A well-fed brother whom one has not seen for 20 years may be bald and scrawny when he returns; he may have a different accent, his likes and dislikes may have changed, and what he now says about politics, art, and women may be incompatible with what one remembers of him. Yet one could still accept him as the self-same individual.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Beispiel3","data_creacio":1563899741976°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Pngbtm20at","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ","startOffset":1542,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ","endOffset":1932°Ӻ,"quote":"The simplest learning system, thus, will have a repertoire of several different activities and at least one sense organ and one comparator that generates an error signal whenever the sensory signals do not match the reference value. What it has to learn (i.e., what is not determined by fixed wiring), is to make the error signal trigger the particular activity that is likely to reduce it.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321061599690319170592":^°°Ӻ,"text":"The simplest learning system, thus, will have a repertoire of several different activities and at least one sense organ and one comparator that generates an error signal whenever the sensory signals do not match the reference value. What it has to learn (i.e., what is not determined by fixed wiring), is to make the error signal trigger the particular activity that is likely to reduce it.","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1563895365478°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Prpv43m9ru","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ8Ӻ","startOffset":1546,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ8Ӻ","endOffset":1710°Ӻ,"quote":"In Piagetian terms, this active imposition of invariance on instances of experience that are always different in some way is the ubiquitous process of assimilation.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321088204143127806022":^°°Ӻ,"text":"In Piagetian terms, this active imposition of invariance on instances of experience that are always different in some way is the ubiquitous process of assimilation.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1563895991845°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Q7z9bq9la5","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ3Ӻ","startOffset":803,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ3Ӻ","endOffset":1264°Ӻ,"quote":"The point is that the organism has neither need nor use for what an observer of the organism calls its environment. Provided there is some recursion in the sequential conjunction of certain activities and certain modifications of sensory signals, the organism can learn to eliminate error signals. It needs no knowledge of distal data, of environment, or of an outside reality, and there seems to be no reasonable way for the organism to acquire such knowledge.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321088204143127806022":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1563895617378°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Qfbe3e0uxs","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ5Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ5Ӻ","endOffset":868°Ӻ,"quote":"This leads to the second use I want to suggest for the black box concept. If it is the experiencer’s intelligence or cognitive activity that, by organizing itself, organizes experience into a viable representation of a world, then one can consider that representation a model, and the “outside reality” it claims to represent, a black box. The moment we attribute to the learning homeostat (to use our original example) the capabilities of representation and hypothesis, it can begin to conjecture how it comes about that a certain activity regularly results in the modification of a certain sensory signal. It can begin to construct a representation of an external world with which it has two conceivable points of contact: “input” in the form of its effect on the outside, and “output” in the form of outside events that cause its own sensory signals.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321088204143127806022":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563895781417°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Qkjg5qx4jt","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ18Ӻ","startOffset":1212,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ18Ӻ","endOffset":1638°Ӻ,"quote":"This self as the “experiencer” appears to be an active agent rather than a passive entity. It can, in fact, move my eyes, tilt my head, change location—and it can also attend to one part of the visual or experiential field rather than to another. This active self can decide to look or not to look, to move or not to move, to hold the pencil or not to hold it and, within certain limits, to experience or not to experience.Ӷ5Ӻ","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321088204143127806022":^°°Ӻ,"text":"This self as the “experiencer” appears to be an active agent rather than a passive entity. It can, in fact, move my eyes, tilt my head, change location—and it can also attend to one part of the visual or experiential field rather than to another. This active self can decide to look or not to look, to move or not to move, to hold the pencil or not to hold it and, within certain limits, to experience or not to experience.Ӷ5Ӻ","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1563900004921°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Qkuy36snah","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ18Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ18Ӻ","endOffset":1212°Ӻ,"quote":"The concept of “self” seems simple enough when we refer to it in an accustomed context and in ordinary language. As a rule people do not object if one makes statements such as “That’s typical of James” or “Well, I can’t help it, I am like that.” Even the rather peculiar expressions “You are you” and “I am I” do not seem as peculiar as Gertrude Stein’s “A rose is a rose.” What we apparently have in mind when we make any such statement is the individual identity or continuity of a person. However, as soon as we attempt to analyze what precisely it is that constitutes the continuity of our “selves,” we run into difficulties and get the impression that there is an ambiguity. The “self” seems to have several different aspects.\nFirst of all, there is a self that is part of one’s perceptual experience. In my visual field, for instance, I can easily discriminate my hand from the writing pad and the table, and from the pencil it is holding. I have no doubt that the hand is part of me, while the pad, the table, and the pencil are not.\n\nSecond, if I move my eyes, tilt my head, or walk to the window, I can isolate my “self” as the locus of the perceptual (and other) experiences I am having.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321088204143127806022":^°°,^"jQuery321088204143127806022":^°°,^"jQuery321088204143127806022":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563900112578°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Qoqvd6ufhn","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ2Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ2Ӻ","endOffset":1404°Ӻ,"quote":"Before discussing the general implications of the learning feedback model, there is one practical point to stress because, although it is implicit in any description of the system’s functioning, its full import is rarely appreciated. The learning process neces- sarily begins with the random choice of an activity in response to an error signal. If that activity does not reduce the error signal, another activity will be tried, and so forth, until one is found that does lead to a reduction of the “disturbance.” This trial-and-error procedure stops when the trial brings success. The connection between that activity and the particular error signal is then recorded and from then on, if there is no disruption, that error signal will “automatically” call up the activity that was successful. However, if there had been no disturbance and, consequently, no error signal, no learning could have taken place.\nIt seems quite possible, if not likely, that an organism with a fairly large repertoire of activities might have several that could reduce the same disturbance. Given the original random approach, however, the organism may not discover this. Since it has recorded that activity x was successful in eliminating a particular disturbance, it will enact this activity in response to that error signal as long as it continues to be successful, and there will be no motive to try others.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321061599690319170592":^°°,^"jQuery321061599690319170592":^°°,^"jQuery321061599690319170592":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563895580204°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Rejukma2yn","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ22Ӻ","startOffset":306,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ22Ӻ","endOffset":1204°Ӻ,"quote":"Take a finger of your right hand and run it along your left forearm: the tactual signals originating in your finger will be a homogeneous “continuous” succession because the receptors from which they come remain the same; the tactual signals originating in your left arm, instead, will constitute a sequence of different signals because they come from different receptors. If you consider this second set of signals as a sequence of different locations with which your finger establishes and terminates contact, you will conceive of your finger as moving. If you consider them equivalent units linked into sequence by the continuous signals from your finger, you will conceive of them as points or “moments” in time. In this second case, the finger of your right hand supplies what is perhaps the closest sensory-motor analogy to the continuity of the experiencing subject that we call our ““self.”","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321088204143127806022":^°°Ӻ,"text":"Take a finger of your right hand and run it along your left forearm: the tactual signals originating in your finger will be a homogeneous “continuous” succession because the receptors from which they come remain the same; the tactual signals originating in your left arm, instead, will constitute a sequence of different signals because they come from different receptors. If you consider this second set of signals as a sequence of different locations with which your finger establishes and terminates contact, you will conceive of your finger as moving. If you consider them equivalent units linked into sequence by the continuous signals from your finger, you will conceive of them as points or “moments” in time. In this second case, the finger of your right hand supplies what is perhaps the closest sensory-motor analogy to the continuity of the experiencing subject that we call our ““self.”","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Beispiel3","data_creacio":1563901288783°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Rsbwwqzmpz","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ9Ӻ","startOffset":205,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ9Ӻ","endOffset":533°Ӻ,"quote":"Hence, from the organism’s point of view, to assimilate means to modify a present experience so that it fits a hereditary or acquired scheme, i.e., a perceptual or motor pattern that already has, in some sense, the character of an invariant. In other words, invariants create repetition as much as repetition creates invariants.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321088204143127806022":^°°Ӻ,"text":"Hence, from the organism’s point of view, to assimilate means to modify a present experience so that it fits a hereditary or acquired scheme, i.e., a perceptual or motor pattern that already has, in some sense, the character of an invariant. In other words, invariants create repetition as much as repetition creates invariants.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1563896107253°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"S9bexy1jtv","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ14Ӻ","startOffset":821,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ14Ӻ","endOffset":1160°Ӻ,"quote":"Both the concept of the object as prototype, with regard to which experiences may be considered equivalent, and the concept of object permanence, as a result of which two or more experiences may be considered to derive from one identical individual, involve a form of invariance. But the invariance is certainly not the same in both cases.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321088204143127806022":^°°Ӻ,"text":"Both the concept of the object as prototype, with regard to which experiences may be considered equivalent, and the concept of object permanence, as a result of which two or more experiences may be considered to derive from one identical individual, involve a form of invariance. But the invariance is certainly not the same in both cases.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1563898701090°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Spl40hlv6t","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ2Ӻ","startOffset":1404,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ2Ӻ","endOffset":1739°Ӻ,"quote":"One can say that such an organism will learn only as a result of disturbance, and it will give up or modify something it has learned only when this again leads to disturbance. This mode of functioning, as we shall see later, fits very well into the Piagetian conception of the complementary processes of assimilation and accommodation.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321061599690319170592":^°°Ӻ,"text":"One can say that such an organism will learn only as a result of disturbance, and it will give up or modify something it has learned only when this again leads to disturbance. This mode of functioning, as we shall see later, fits very well into the Piagetian conception of the complementary processes of assimilation and accommodation.","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1563895394098°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Sv3mu5xl1a","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ11Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ11Ӻ","endOffset":1080°Ӻ,"quote":"“The object is in the first instance only known through the subject’s actions, and therefore must be itself constructed” (Piaget, 1972, p.82). For Piaget, early instances of “objects” are always subsections of an action scheme. They are the sensory schemes which, in conjunction with a motor scheme, constitute a sensorimotor activity. As such they are always a compound of perceptual as well as proprioceptive data. That is to say, they are a scheme composed not only of several sensory signals but also of signals in several sensory modes. Usually this means that they contain visual and tactual signals as well as proprioceptive signals deriving from the motor activity of the perceiver.\nAs the result of many acts of accommodation that added or removed particular experiential elements, an object-scheme becomes relatively invariant and may be used to assimilate new experience. But all this still takes place on the level of sensorimotor activities and, though it may serve as partial model for later developments, it does not entail the formation of concepts.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321088204143127806022":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563896270575°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Svbhynyq3t","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ21Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ21Ӻ","endOffset":1065°Ӻ,"quote":"If the Piagetian approach to the notion of object permanence is a viable one, it should not surprise us that the notion of self as a constant perceptual entity cannot be derived from vision alone. According to that theory, permanent objects are the result of the coordination of signals from more than one sensory source.Ӷ6Ӻ Since the body percept obviously does achieve the status of permanent object, it must be multi-modal, and the question now is: what kinds of signals and coordinations of signals would enable an organism to differentiate one permanent object—his own body—from all the other permanent objects that have been constructed and externalized?\nThe answer is extremely complex; there are many factors that contribute to the differentiation and isolation of the body percept. In this summary exposition I shall sketch out a few of the points that seem crucial. Such an analysis is necessarily made by an observer who can only hypothesize what goes on in the black box we call an observed organism. (See “The Use of Black Boxes,” above.)","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321088204143127806022":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563901216892°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"T757fqdkei","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ22Ӻ","startOffset":214,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ22Ӻ","endOffset":306°Ӻ,"quote":"The one is continuous relative to the other, the other is sequential relative to the first.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321088204143127806022":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563901296815°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Tmbubszdu4","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ22Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ22Ӻ","endOffset":213°Ӻ,"quote":"Under the heading time, I said that continuity and sequence both spring from the juxtaposition of two successions of signals that are separate in the experiential field but interrelated by attention.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321088204143127806022":^°°Ӻ,"text":"Under the heading time, I said that continuity and sequence both spring from the juxtaposition of two successions of signals that are separate in the experiential field but interrelated by attention.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1563901234849°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Xvfuxu38oa","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ15Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ15Ӻ","endOffset":887°Ӻ,"quote":"No recurrence can possibly be established unless there are records of past experiences and the possibility of surveying them in some way. That requires not only memory and retrieval capabilities (which I shall take for granted), but that the experiencing organism can switch his attention from “present” items to the records of “past” items. It is only by switching from one item to another that absence of difference can be established, with the result that the two experiential items are the same. Eliane Vurpillot (1972) has elegantly documented the switching to and fro of children’s eyes during visual comparison tasks. Eye movements indicate shifts of attention in the visual field. Shifts of attention, however, have also been observed when eye movement is eliminated by stabilizing the visual image (Pritchard, Heron, and Hebb, 1960; Zinchenko and Vergiles, 1972).","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321088204143127806022":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563899090241°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Y0bgpxu0ur","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ12Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ12Ӻ","endOffset":1057°Ӻ,"quote":"Introspectively we know that we can operate on a representational level. Empirically we know that people can solve quite complicated problems in their heads (i.e., without perceptual crutches, such as pencil and paper) and that some of them can even play several games of chess simultaneously without any visual aids whatever. Nevertheless I do not want to say that adults or children have representations as a matter of fact. All I intend is that the kind of model a cognitivist constructs to “explain” the functioning of such organisms must have that capability.\nOnce a system is equipped with this ability to maintain experiential compounds invariant and to use them independently of present sensory experience, all sorts of interesting things become possible. For the moment I shall mention only two. First, the term invariant acquires a new dimensions. In the context of sensorimotor assimilation, it was always a perceptual or motor activity that was called invariant because it did not change in the face of different sensory material.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321088204143127806022":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563896309791°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Y9pfk6yah9","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ25Ӻ","startOffset":719,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ25Ӻ","endOffset":937°Ӻ,"quote":"The invariant the system achieves can, therefore, never be found or frozen in a single element because, by its very nature, it consists in one or more relationships—and relationships are not in things but between them.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321088204143127806022":^°°Ӻ,"text":"The invariant the system achieves can, therefore, never be found or frozen in a single element because, by its very nature, it consists in one or more relationships—and relationships are not in things but between them.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1563901502934°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Ybv6wh6231","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ20Ӻ","startOffset":981,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ20Ӻ","endOffset":1330°Ӻ,"quote":"Thus, although we can visually distinguish birds, coffee cups, tables, and hands from the rest of the visual field and from one another, it seems clear that a naive organism (i.e., an organism such as an infant that does not yet have a great deal of intermodally coordinated experiences) cannot visually discriminate between a hand and his own hand.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321088204143127806022":^°°Ӻ,"text":"Thus, although we can visually distinguish birds, coffee cups, tables, and hands from the rest of the visual field and from one another, it seems clear that a naive organism (i.e., an organism such as an infant that does not yet have a great deal of intermodally coordinated experiences) cannot visually discriminate between a hand and his own hand.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1563901148637°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Yh7q4e6aku","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ16Ӻ","startOffset":444,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ16Ӻ","endOffset":814°Ӻ,"quote":"Hence it should not be called “equivalent,” let alone “identical.” In order to establish equivalence, the comparison would have to be carried out in both directions. This distinction is of considerable practical importance, since it is all too easy to overlook the fact that in classifying or categorizing, as a rule, a one-directional comparison is all that is made.Ӷ1Ӻ","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321088204143127806022":^°°,^"jQuery321088204143127806022":^°°,^"jQuery321088204143127806022":^°°,^"jQuery321088204143127806022":^°°Ӻ,"text":"Hence it should not be called “equivalent,” let alone “identical.” In order to establish equivalence, the comparison would have to be carried out in both directions. This distinction is of considerable practical importance, since it is all too easy to overlook the fact that in classifying or categorizing, as a rule, a one-directional comparison is all that is made.Ӷ1Ӻ","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1563899197241°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Z6frtf6lsg","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ13Ӻ","startOffset":471,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ13Ӻ","endOffset":861°Ӻ,"quote":"But, the principle of (1) learning to construct a composite in a certain way and out of certain elements, (2) storing the program or recipe of construction, and (3) retrieving it as a unit to combine with others of parallel origin and form a “higher-level” structure, without having to return to the “lower” level, has proven to be one of the most powerful in the construction of knowledge.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321088204143127806022":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563898637554°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Zhzsuoopo7","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ3Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ3Ӻ","endOffset":803°Ӻ,"quote":"As Powers (1973) has formulated it, an organism “behaves in order to control its perception.” In more explicit terms, that means that an organism acts to modify a sensory signal towards a match with the reference signal, so that there will no longer be the error signal that triggers the activity. On the simplest level we may even say that an organism acts to eliminate error signals. And its learning consists in finding (and recording for future use) an activity that will do that. The trials with different activities will cease when the error signal ceases, and the successful connection that has “caused” the reduction of the error signal will be the new “knowledge.” The next time that same error signal comes from the comparator, the organism will “know” which activity to choose.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321088204143127806022":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563895634886°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"A2ne3u2ncg","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ2Ӻ","startOffset":21,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ2Ӻ/pӶ1Ӻ","endOffset":484°Ӻ,"quote":"Fünfzehn Jahre später zeigte George Berkeley, daß die selben Argumente, die Locke benützt hatte, um die sinnlichen Eindrücke als illusorisch aufzuweisen, ebenso die Realität der primären Eigenschaften untergruben. Und in seinem philosophischen Tagebuch fügte Berkeley ein weiteres Argument hinzu, das mir noch gewichtiger erscheint:\nAusdehnung, Bewegung und Zeit schließen jeweils die Idee der Aufeinanderfolge ein. Die Zahl besteht in Aufeinanderfolge und dinghafte Wahrnehmung auch; denn gleichzeitig wahrgenommene Dinge werden im Geiste durcheinander geworfen und vermischt. Zeit und Bewegung können ohne Aufeinanderfolge nicht verstanden werden, und auch die Ausdehnung kann nur so vorgestellt werden, daß sie aus Teilen besteht, voneinander geschieden und hintereinander wahrgenommen.\n(Berkeley, 1706-08, § 460)","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321097354418420853482":^°°,^"jQuery321097354418420853482":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1571069541008°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Am1qnogh8t","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ10Ӻ","startOffset":1426,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ10Ӻ","endOffset":1623°Ӻ,"quote":"((46)) Beide Operationsweisen sind wichtige Elemente im Aufbau der Begriffswelt. Indem wir Klassen bilden, ersparen wir es uns, jeden Gegenstand, den wir erleben, als Neuerscheinung zu untersuchen.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321065439338157855982":^°°Ӻ,"text":"((46)) Beide Operationsweisen sind wichtige Elemente im Aufbau der Begriffswelt. Indem wir Klassen bilden, ersparen wir es uns, jeden Gegenstand, den wir erleben, als Neuerscheinung zu untersuchen.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1572030693874°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Amnbrhn1ma","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ7Ӻ/pӶ1Ӻ","startOffset":260,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ7Ӻ/pӶ1Ӻ","endOffset":443°Ӻ,"quote":"Ein Thermostat zum Beispiel bewirkt nur dann eine Tätigkeit (Heizen oder Kühlen), wenn die wahrgenommene Temperatur nicht mehr mit dem festgelegten Sollwert (Referenz) Ubereinstimmt.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321035138084076746112":^°°Ӻ,"text":" Ein Thermostat zum Beispiel bewirkt nur dann eine Tätigkeit (Heizen oder Kühlen), wenn die wahrgenommene Temperatur nicht mehr mit dem festgelegten Sollwert (Referenz) Ubereinstimmt.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Beispiel3","data_creacio":1572028453076°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Amy5j5prop","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ3Ӻ","startOffset":1260,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ3Ӻ","endOffset":1426°Ӻ,"quote":"Kurz, alles, was überlebt. war schon im Vorhinein an die Bedingungen und Beschränkungen angepaßt, durch die die natürliche Auslese nun das Nichtangepaßte vernichtet.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321033026860299057162":^°°Ӻ,"text":"Kurz, alles, was überlebt. war schon im Vorhinein an die Bedingungen und Beschränkungen angepaßt, durch die die natürliche Auslese nun das Nichtangepaßte vernichtet.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1571071578618°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Ciplaxgsma","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ12Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ12Ӻ","endOffset":1511°Ӻ,"quote":"((58)) Auf Grund dieser epistemologischen Voraussetzungen lassen sich einige Schlußfolgerungen ziehen:\n- Der Konstruktivismus leugnet keineswegs eine ontologische Realität, doch er behauptet, daß wir sie nicht rational erfassen können.\n- ‘Wirklichkeit’ ist die Welt, die wir erleben, und aus ihr allein leiten wir, auf die uns eigene Weise, Ideen und Dinge ab, sowie die Begriffe der Beziehungen, mit denen wir Verbindungen hersteilen und Theorien aufbauen, die es uns erlauben, mehr oder weniger viable Erklärungen und Vorhersagen in unserer Lebenswelt zu formulieren.\n- Der Begriff der Viabilität ersetzt jenen der ontischen Wahrheit; das heißt, die Bestätigung des Wissens wird nicht in einem unmöglichen Vergleich mit der Realität gesucht, sondern in seiner Brauchbarkeit angesichts der Hindernisse, denen wir beim Verfolgen unserer Ziele begegnen. Daraus folgt, daß die Lösung eines Problems nie als die einzig mögliche betrachtet werden darf; es mag die einzige sein, die wir zur Zeit kennen, aber das rechtfertigt niemals den Glauben, unsere Lösung gewähre uns Einsicht in die Struktur einer von uns unabhängig existierenden Welt. \n\n- Dieser letzte Punkt betrifft notwendigerweise auch den Konstruktivismus selbst. Wie alle Theorien, beruht er auf Voraussetzungen, doch er hütet sich, diese Voraussetzungen, seien sie bewußt oder unbewußt, als ontologische Gegebenheiten zu betrachten. Sie werden als Annahmen gedacht, um Modelle zu bauen, die sich in der Welt des Erlebens bewähren sollen.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321050313885118836352":^°°,^"jQuery321050313885118836352":^°°,^"jQuery321050313885118836352":^°°Ӻ,"text":"((58)) Auf Grund dieser epistemologischen Voraussetzungen lassen sich einige Schlußfolgerungen ziehen:\n\n- Der Konstruktivismus leugnet keineswegs eine ontologische Realität, doch er behauptet, daß wir sie nicht rational erfassen können. - ‘Wirklichkeit’ ist die Welt, die wir erleben, und aus ihr allein leiten wir, auf die uns eigene Weise, Ideen und Dinge ab, sowie die Begriffe der Beziehungen, mit denen wir Verbindungen hersteilen und Theorien aufbauen, die es uns erlauben, mehr oder weniger viable Erklärungen und Vorhersagen in unserer Lebenswelt zu formulieren. - Der Begriff der Viabilität ersetzt jenen der ontischen Wahrheit; das heißt, die Bestätigung des Wissens wird nicht in einem unmöglichen Vergleich mit der Realität gesucht, sondern in seiner Brauchbarkeit angesichts der Hindernisse, denen wir beim Verfolgen unserer Ziele begegnen. Daraus folgt, daß die Lösung eines Problems nie als die einzig mögliche betrachtet werden darf; es mag die einzige sein, die wir zur Zeit kennen, aber das rechtfertigt niemals den Glauben, unsere Lösung gewähre uns Einsicht in die Struktur einer von uns unabhängig existierenden Welt.\n- Dieser letzte Punkt betrifft notwendigerweise auch den Konstruktivismus selbst. Wie alle Theorien, beruht er auf Voraussetzungen, doch er hütet sich, diese Voraussetzungen, seien sie bewußt oder unbewußt, als ontologische Gegebenheiten zu betrachten. Sie werden als Annahmen gedacht, um Modelle zu bauen, die sich in der Welt des Erlebens bewähren sollen.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1572877117528°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Dtj79nwrou","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ3Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ3Ӻ","endOffset":1260°Ӻ,"quote":"Im Bereich der Kognition ist der Begriff der Anpassung wohl analog der Darwinschen Idee der physiologischen Anpassung biologischer Organismen, doch er ist nicht mehr direkt mit Überleben oder Aussterben verknüpft. Diese Verknüpfung hat schon in der Biologie zu Mißverständnissen geführt. Viekle Texte erwähnen 'Umweltdruck', als sei dies eine Ursache, die in Organismen oder Arten Eigenschaften und Handlungsweisen erzeugt, die sich als angepaßt erweisen. Das ist irreführend, denn in der Evolutionstheorie ist es keineswegs die Umwelt, die den Beweggrund zu einer aktiven Anpassung liefert. Die natürliche Auslese schafft weder Eigenschaften noch Verhalten, sie funktioniert lediglich negativ, indem sie jene Individuen aussterben läßt, die unter den gegenwärtigen Bedingungen unfähig sind, zu überleben und sich fortzupflanzen. Anpassung ist nicht eine Tätigkeit der Organismen, sondern eine Beschreibung ihres Zustands. Diejenigen, die überleben, müssen die dazu nötigen Eigenschaften und Verhalten bereits besitzen, wenn der Druck der Umwelt einsetzt. Diese Eigenschaften sind durchwegs das Ergebnis von zufälligen Mutationen oder Fehlern im Vererbungsmechanismus und als solche niemals Reaktionen auf Umstände oder Änderungen der Umwelt.Ӷ5Ӻ","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321033026860299057162":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1571071603290°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"E8ce430dmo","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ10Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ10Ӻ","endOffset":699°Ӻ,"quote":"((45)) Ein integraler Teil des konstruktivistischen Denkens ist die Entwicklung von Modellen, die mentalen Operationen entsprechen, die uns in unserer täglichen Erfahrung Begriffsstrukturen liefern, deren Ableitung uns zumeist unbewußt bleibt. Eine der wichtigsten unter diesen ist die Überzeugung der sogenannten ‘Objektpermanenz’, die wir bereits früh in unserer kognitiven Laufbahn aufgebaut haben. Die Herkunft der Idee, daß die meisten Gegenstände, mit denen wir unsere Erlebenswelt möblieren, existentielle Dauerhaftigkeit haben, wird zumindest oberflächlich dadurch verschleiert, daß die Ausdrücke „das gleiche“ und „dasselbe“ in der Umgangssprache austauschbar benützt werden.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321065439338157855982":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1572030740799°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Erlmg3yhji","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ8Ӻ/pӶ1Ӻ","startOffset":2425,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ8Ӻ/pӶ1Ӻ","endOffset":2768°Ӻ,"quote":"Selbst wenn die fürsorgliche Mutter eine Tasse vom Tisch hebt und zur einjährigen Tochter sagt: „Schau, Marie, das ist eine Tasse, eine Tasse.“, muß Marie zuerst den Gegenstand in ihrem Gesichtsfeld isolieren und den Wortlaut von anderen gleichzeitigen Geräuschen trennen, bevor sie zwischen beiden eine semantische Verbindung hersteilen kann.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery3210284332268074519832":^°°Ӻ,"text":"Selbst wenn die fürsorgliche Mutter eine Tasse vom Tisch hebt und zur einjährigen Tochter sagt: „Schau, Marie, das ist eine Tasse, eine Tasse.“, muß Marie zuerst den Gegenstand in ihrem Gesichtsfeld isolieren und den Wortlaut von anderen gleichzeitigen Geräuschen trennen, bevor sie zwischen beiden eine semantische Verbindung hersteilen kann.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Beispiel3","data_creacio":1572029044840°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"F3dr5zldcf","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ8Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ8Ӻ/pӶ1Ӻ","endOffset":2425°Ӻ,"quote":"((38)) Mit der Kybernetik stimmt der radikale Konstruktivismus auch in der Einstellung gegenüber Sprache und Verständigung überein. Die auf Arbeiten von Claude Shannon beruhende Kommunikationstheorie (1948) hat eine technische Analyse des Vorgangs geliefert und einen weitverbreiteten Glauben abgebaut. \nSignale, Wörter oder Symbole befördern ihre Bedeutung nicht von einem Kommunikanten zum anderen. Die Signalzeichen, die von dem jeweiligen Sender zu einem Empfänger kommen, erhalten ihre Bedeutung nur durch einen Interpretationsprozeß an beiden Enden des Kommunikationskanals. Der Sender setzt die Nachricht in einen bereits festgelegten Kode um (encoding), zum Beispiel in den Morse-Kode der Telegraphie. Es handelt sich da um eine zweispaltige Liste, in der jeder Buchstabe des Alphabets mit einem Signal Zeichen in Form einer Kombination von Punkten und Strichen gepaart ist. Die Empfänger am anderen Ende des Kanals können den empfangenen Signalen nur dann Bedeutungen zuschreiben, wenn sie im Besitz der Kode-Liste sind. Die Liste selbst kann nicht übertragen werden und muß darum auf andere Weise an die zukünftigen Empfänger verteilt werden. Diese Bedingung muß in allen Kommunikationssystemen erfüllt werden, bevor eine Verständigung stattfinden kann.\n((39)) Insofern die natürlichen Sprachen der Verständigung dienen sollen, stellt sich die Frage, wie es dazu kommt, daß die Sprachbenutzer einander verstehen. Freilich gibt es Wörterbücher und Lexika, in denen Wortbedeutungen erklärt werden, aber diese Erklärungen bestehen jeweils aus anderen Wörtern und sind deswegen nur denjenigen nützlich, die bereits einen gewissen Wortschatz haben. Kinder eignen sich ihren grundlegenden Wortschatz in der eigenen Sprache nicht durch das Studium von Wörterbüchern an, sondern auf Grund ihrer Erfahrungen im täglichen Leben. Obschon fortlaufend Untersuchungen gemacht und Theorien entworfen werden, wie die Regeln des Satzbaues gelernt werden könnten, hat kaum jemand sich dafür interessiert, wie Wortbedeutungen entstehen. Schuld daran ist die althergebrachte Überzeugung, daß Wörter - zumindest jene, die Kinder lernen - sich auf Gegenstände der realen Welt beziehen, die für alle Sprecher gleich und darum unproblematisch sind. \n((40)) Wenn die epistemologischen Argumente, die ich bereits vorgebracht habe, sinnvoll sind, liegt die Frage der ersten, unerläßlichen Wortbedeutungen jedoch völlig anders. Der Boden, aus dem sie wachsen, kann nur die Erfahrungswelt des Kindes sein. In dieser verschwommenen formlosen Landschaft müssen zunächst wiederholbare Muster gebildet werden, und erst wenn visuelle Komplexe streng von Klangbildern unterschieden sind, kann eines der zweiten Gruppe einem der ersten zugeordnet werden.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery3210284332268074519832":^°°,^"jQuery3210284332268074519832":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1572029054791°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Fqlcidlm51","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ6Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ6Ӻ","endOffset":1172°Ӻ,"quote":"((35)) Der springende Punkt in dieser Theorie ist das Prinzip der ‘Akkommodation’. Wenn ein Subjekt eine wahrgenommene Situation als Auslöser einer bestimmten Handlung assimiliert, schafft dies die Erwartung, daß die Handlung das gewohnte Ergebnis zeitigen wird. Wenn dann dieses Ergebnis nicht eintritt, entsteht eine Perturbation, d.h. eine Störung des inneren Gleichgewichts. Es kann dies eine Enttäuschung sein, oder eine positive Überraschung (wenn das unerwartete Ergebnis ein angenehmes ist). In beiden Fällen kann die Perturbation zu einer Überprüfung der Auslösersituation führen - gewissermaßen um herauszufinden, warum das Schema nicht wie erwartet funktioniert hat. Wenn nun ein vorher mißachtetes Element der Situation für den Fehlschlag verantwortlich gemacht werden kann, so besteht die Möglichkeit, das Erkennungsmuster dementsprechend abzuändern. War das unerwartete Ergebnis angenehm, so wird dies zur Bildung eines neuen Schemas neben dem alten führen. In beiden Fällen nennt Piaget es eine Akkommodation. (Eine Akkommodation kann selbstverständlich auch stattfinden, wenn die Überprüfung einen Haken im Ablauf der Handlung zutage bringt).","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery3210287210486619660642":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1572027910406°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Gindjvhwwf","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ","startOffset":3243,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ","endOffset":3826°Ӻ,"quote":"((12)) Die Schlagkraft dieser Aussage beruht auf der Einsicht, daß die Richtigkeit oder 'Wahrheit' eines Weltbildes nur durch einen Vergleich mit der Welt an sich bestätigt werden könnte und daß dieser Vergleich für uns ausgeschlossen ist. Wir können unser Weltbild nur mit anderen Vorstellungen vergleichen, die wie die erste auf unserem Erleben beruhen und somit durch unsere Art und Weise des Wahrnehmens und Begreifens gebildet wurden. Alles Wissen unterliegt dieser Bedingung, denn was immer wir auch tun, wir können aus unseren Formen des Erlebens und Denkens nicht aussteigen.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery32102535428975172782":^°°Ӻ,"text":"((12)) Die Schlagkraft dieser Aussage beruht auf der Einsicht, daß die Richtigkeit oder 'Wahrheit' eines Weltbildes nur durch einen Vergleich mit der Welt an sich bestätigt werden könnte und daß dieser Vergleich für uns ausgeschlossen ist. Wir können unser Weltbild nur mit anderen Vorstellungen vergleichen, die wie die erste auf unserem Erleben beruhen und somit durch unsere Art und Weise des Wahrnehmens und Begreifens gebildet wurden. Alles Wissen unterliegt dieser Bedingung, denn was immer wir auch tun, wir können aus unseren Formen des Erlebens und Denkens nicht aussteigen.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1572863261800°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Gir8vy52bm","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ","startOffset":3483,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ","endOffset":3826°Ӻ,"quote":"Wir können unser Weltbild nur mit anderen Vorstellungen vergleichen, die wie die erste auf unserem Erleben beruhen und somit durch unsere Art und Weise des Wahrnehmens und Begreifens gebildet wurden. Alles Wissen unterliegt dieser Bedingung, denn was immer wir auch tun, wir können aus unseren Formen des Erlebens und Denkens nicht aussteigen.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321017514687672305332":^°°Ӻ,"text":"Wir können unser Weltbild nur mit anderen Vorstellungen vergleichen, die wie die erste auf unserem Erleben beruhen und somit durch unsere Art und Weise des Wahrnehmens und Begreifens gebildet wurden. Alles Wissen unterliegt dieser Bedingung, denn was immer wir auch tun, wir können aus unseren Formen des Erlebens und Denkens nicht aussteigen.","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1571065351034°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Gn8rwmbam5","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ11Ӻ","startOffset":345,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ11Ӻ","endOffset":1872°Ӻ,"quote":"Man braucht mindestens zwei, zwischen denen man einen Unterschied feststellt. Nehmen wir an, ich sehe, daß der Apfel, den meine Frau mir vor zwei Tagen auf den Schreibtisch gelegt hat, nun angefault ist. Das Diagramm dieser Änderung sieht so aus: \n\n((53)) Um zu sagen, daß der Apfel „X“ sich verändert hat, muß ich annehmen, daß er in beiden Beobachtungen derselbe war; wäre er es nicht, so müßte ich ‘Austausch’ denken, nicht ‘Veränderung’. Ist der Apfel an eine andere Stelle des Schreibtischs gerollt, so setzte ich statt der Eigenschaften im Diagramm die zwei verschiedenen Ortsbestimmungen ein, und dann zeigt es die ‘Ortsveränderung’ an.\n((54)) Wenn ein Objekt im Laufe mehrerer Erlebnisse in gewisser Hinsicht unverändert bleibt, so kann ich die Fortdauer seines Zustands durch zwei einander folgende, aber ansonsten gleiche Momentaufnahmen anzeigen und so den Begriff der Dauer nahelegen. Verbinde ich das Element der Fortdauer an einem Ort mit der Beobachtung des identischen Individuums an einem anderen, so erhalte ich den Begriff der räumlichen ‘Ausdehnung’.\n\n((55)) Daß die in diesen Diagrammen angedeuteten mentalen Operationen zumeist nicht bewußt registriert werden, läßt sich mit Hilfe von zwei ganz banalen Aussagen zeigen. Einmal sage ich zu einem Besucher: „Der Zug geht direkt von hier nach Boston“, ein andermal,.Diese Straße geht nach Boston.“ Normalerweise wird weder mir noch ihm dabei bewußt, daß der Zug nur jeweils an einem Ort sein kann, während die Straße als an beiden Orten zugleich gedacht wird","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321045072408094073812":^°°,^"jQuery321045072408094073812":^°°,^"jQuery321045072408094073812":^°°Ӻ,"text":"Man braucht mindestens zwei, zwischen denen man einen Unterschied feststellt. Nehmen wir an, ich sehe, daß der Apfel, den meine Frau mir vor zwei Tagen auf den Schreibtisch gelegt hat, nun angefault ist. Das Diagramm dieser Änderung sieht so aus:\n\n\n((53)) Um zu sagen, daß der Apfel „X“ sich verändert hat, muß ich annehmen, daß er in beiden Beobachtungen derselbe war; wäre er es nicht, so müßte ich ‘Austausch’ denken, nicht ‘Veränderung’. Ist der Apfel an eine andere Stelle des Schreibtischs gerollt, so setzte ich statt der Eigenschaften im Diagramm die zwei verschiedenen Ortsbestimmungen ein, und dann zeigt es die ‘Ortsveränderung’ an. ((54)) Wenn ein Objekt im Laufe mehrerer Erlebnisse in gewisser Hinsicht unverändert bleibt, so kann ich die Fortdauer seines Zustands durch zwei einander folgende, aber ansonsten gleiche Momentaufnahmen anzeigen und so den Begriff der Dauer nahelegen. Verbinde ich das Element der Fortdauer an einem Ort mit der Beobachtung des identischen Individuums an einem anderen, so erhalte ich den Begriff der räumlichen ‘Ausdehnung’.\n((55)) Daß die in diesen Diagrammen angedeuteten mentalen Operationen zumeist nicht bewußt registriert werden, läßt sich mit Hilfe von zwei ganz banalen Aussagen zeigen. Einmal sage ich zu einem Besucher: „Der Zug geht direkt von hier nach Boston“, ein andermal,.Diese Straße geht nach Boston.“ Normalerweise wird weder mir noch ihm dabei bewußt, daß der Zug nur jeweils an einem Ort sein kann, während die Straße als an beiden Orten zugleich gedacht wird.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Beispiel3","data_creacio":1572031269588°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"H33jrem2oo","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ","endOffset":283°Ӻ,"quote":"((27)) Auf der kognitiven Ebene geht es nicht direkt um Überleben, sondern um 'Aquilibration', das heißt um inneres Gleichgewicht, und die Auslese ist darum weniger drastisch. Ziel der Anpassung ist hier das Vermeiden von Hindernissen und das Ausgleichen von Störungen.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery3210394649339896838262":^°°,^"jQuery3210394649339896838262":^°°Ӻ,"text":"((27)) Auf der kognitiven Ebene geht es nicht direkt um Überleben, sondern um 'Aquilibration', das heißt um inneres Gleichgewicht, und die Auslese ist darum weniger drastisch. Ziel der Anpassung ist hier das Vermeiden von Hindernissen und das Ausgleichen von Störungen.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1571072183325°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Hglms742zf","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ11Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ11Ӻ","endOffset":271°Ӻ,"quote":"((52)) Um auch die anderen Begriffe, die bereits Berkeley als mentale Konstrukte bezeichnete, auf meine Weise zu analysieren, möchte ich die Struktur der ‘Änderung’ graphisch darstellen. Auch dieser Begriff entspringt einer Folge von Erlebensmomenten, denn","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321045072408094073812":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1572031214769°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Hux94mfbjz","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ13Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ13Ӻ","endOffset":641°Ӻ,"quote":"((60)) Für mich liegt das wichtigste Anwendungsgebiet des Konstruktivismus im täglichen Leben. Mit dem Verzicht auf objektive Wahrheit verliert alles Rechthaberische seinen Sinn. Wenn man keinen Grund mehr hat zu behaupten, man wisse wie dies oder jenes ist, versteht man leichter, daß andere ihre Wirklichkeit nicht so sehen müssen, wie man die eigene sieht. Man kann zwar darüber diskutieren, ob die eine oder andere Handlungs- oder Denkweise voraussichtlich zu dem gemeinsam erwünschten Ziel fuhren wird oder nicht, aber man bleibt sich der Tatsache gewahr, daß die Frage letztlich nur in der\nPraxis entschieden werden kann.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321034165088881081242":^°°Ӻ,"text":"((60)) Für mich liegt das wichtigste Anwendungsgebiet des Konstruktivismus im täglichen Leben. Mit dem Verzicht auf objektive Wahrheit verliert alles Rechthaberische seinen Sinn. Wenn man keinen Grund mehr hat zu behaupten, man wisse wie dies oder jenes ist, versteht man leichter, daß andere ihre Wirklichkeit nicht so sehen müssen, wie man die eigene sieht. Man kann zwar darüber diskutieren, ob die eine oder andere Handlungs- oder Denkweise voraussichtlich zu dem gemeinsam erwünschten Ziel fuhren wird oder nicht, aber man bleibt sich der Tatsache gewahr, daß die Frage letztlich nur in der Praxis entschieden werden kann.","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1573156185365°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Ikwep5m4go","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ7Ӻ","startOffset":1243,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ7Ӻ","endOffset":1649°Ӻ,"quote":"Wenn der ‘intelligente’ Organismus nicht auf Stimuli der Umwelt, sondern lediglich auf Unterschiede zwischen Wahrnehmungen und vorbestimmten Sollwerten reagiert, um sein internes Gleichgewicht zu erhalten, dann gewinnt der Organismus kein objektives Wissen von der Außenwelt. Er kann bestenfalls lernen, sein Gleichgewicht angesichts der Perturbationen, die er wahrnimmt, einigermaßen aufrecht zu erhalten.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321017514687672305332":^°°Ӻ,"text":"Wenn der ‘intelligente’ Organismus nicht auf Stimuli der Umwelt, sondern lediglich auf Unterschiede zwischen Wahrnehmungen und vorbestimmten Sollwerten reagiert, um sein internes Gleichgewicht zu erhalten, dann gewinnt der Organismus kein objektives Wissen von der Außenwelt. Er kann bestenfalls lernen, sein Gleichgewicht angesichts der Perturbationen, die er wahrnimmt, einigermaßen aufrecht zu erhalten.","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1572028423844°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Inj4r7x21j","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ9Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ9Ӻ","endOffset":182°Ӻ,"quote":"((43)) Auf dem Niveau der Begriffe, die nicht direkt aus Elementen der Wahrnehmung gewonnen werden können, beruht der Aufbau auf der Reflexion über mentale Operationen.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321017514687672305332":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1572029254543°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Iv70iak5ec","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ6Ӻ","startOffset":1173,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ6Ӻ","endOffset":1346°Ӻ,"quote":"Kurz, man kann die allgemeine Regel formulieren, daß Akkommodationen und somit Lernen dann zustande kommen, wenn ein gewohntes Schema ein unerwartetes Resultat hervorbringt.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery3210287210486619660642":^°°Ӻ,"text":"Kurz, man kann die allgemeine Regel formulieren, daß Akkommodationen und somit Lernen dann zustande kommen, wenn ein gewohntes Schema ein unerwartetes Resultat hervorbringt.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1572027901741°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Jdpzlc97qa","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ2Ӻ","startOffset":839,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ2Ӻ","endOffset":1041°Ӻ,"quote":"((18)) Diese Bedingung der Aufeinanderfolge ist besonders wichtig, denn sie bringt die grundlegende Tatsache ans Licht, daß eine Folge nur gewußt werden kann, wenn wir ein Ding nach dem anderen erleben.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321097354418420853482":^°°Ӻ,"text":"((18)) Diese Bedingung der Aufeinanderfolge ist besonders wichtig, denn sie bringt die grundlegende Tatsache ans Licht, daß eine Folge nur gewußt werden kann, wenn wir ein Ding nach dem anderen erleben.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1571069552336°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Kp9ml6buq0","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ8Ӻ/pӶ1Ӻ","startOffset":2769,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ8Ӻ/pӶ1Ӻ","endOffset":3726°Ӻ,"quote":"Was das Kind da isoliert und trennt, sind nicht Dinge an sich, sondern unter allen Umständen Teile seiner eigenen Erlebenswelt, die im Laufe weiterer Erfahrungen durchwegs mehr oder weniger geändert werden müssen, um mit dem Sprachgebrauch der Erwachsenen einigermaßen übereinzustimmen.\n((41)) Michael Tomasello hat auf Grund von ausgedehnten, extrem sorgfältigen Entwicklungsstudien die oft verworrenen Pfade dargelegt, auf denen das Kind seine relative Anpassung an den allgemeinen Sprachgebrauch erreicht (Tomasello, 1992). Daß diese Anpassung eine allmähliche ist, sollte niemanden überraschen. Auch in fortgeschrittenem Alter entdecken wir alle von Zeit zu Zeit, daß wir das eine oder andere Wort unserer Sprache bisher stets in einer Weise verwendet haben, die von jener anderer Sprecher abweicht. Wir haben es vorher nicht bemerkt, weil die Situationen, in denen wir das Wort benutzten oder hörten, unsere Idiosynkrasie nicht zum Vorschein brachten.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery3210284332268074519832":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1572029109166°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"L44f9mlubl","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ7Ӻ/pӶ1Ӻ","startOffset":444,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ7Ӻ","endOffset":1243°Ӻ,"quote":"William Powers, ein Pionier der Anwendung kybernetischer Prinzipien in der Verhaltenspsychologie, hat diese Idee im Titel seines Buches\n\nformuliert: Behavior; The Control of Perception - Verhalten als Steuerung der Wahrnehmung (1973). Auch er sah, daß dieses Prinzip erhebliche epistemologische Konsequenzen mit sich bringt.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321035138084076746112":^°°,^"jQuery321035138084076746112":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1572028465811°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Lb95wxijky","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ","startOffset":1555,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ","endOffset":2030°Ӻ,"quote":"Diese Beziehung des Hineinpassens läßt sich vielleicht am besten durch die Metapher klar machen, die einige Biologen formuliert haben: Der Vorgang der Auslese, die nur Angepaßtes überleben läßt, ist mit der Funktion eines Siebs vergleichbar, das alles durchfallen läßt, was irgendwie durch die Maschen schlüpft. Was durchfällt 'paßt', besitzt aber keine Eigenschaften des Siebs - es ist nur so beschaffen, daß es durch die Beschränkungen des Siebs nicht beinträchtigt wird.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321017514687672305332":^°°Ӻ,"text":"Diese Beziehung des Hineinpassens läßt sich vielleicht am besten durch die Metapher klar machen, die einige Biologen formuliert haben: Der Vorgang der Auslese, die nur Angepaßtes überleben läßt, ist mit der Funktion eines Siebs vergleichbar, das alles durchfallen läßt, was irgendwie durch die Maschen schlüpft. Was durchfällt 'paßt', besitzt aber keine Eigenschaften des Siebs - es ist nur so beschaffen, daß es durch die Beschränkungen des Siebs nicht beinträchtigt wird.","category":"Beispiel3","data_creacio":1571072203069°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Lq40agjfqj","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ5Ӻ","startOffset":1206,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ5Ӻ","endOffset":1521°Ӻ,"quote":"Das, worauf es ankommt, ist, wie der Organismus die gegebene Situation wahrnimmt. Solange sie mit dem Erkennungsmuster vereinbar ist, das der Organismus ererbt oder sich gebildet hat, löst sie die assoziierte Handlung aus. Das ist die ontogenetisch erste Manifestation dessen, was Piaget 'Assimilation' genannt hat.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321071211942496612752":^°°,^"jQuery321071211942496612752":^°°,^"jQuery321071211942496612752":^°°Ӻ,"text":"Das, worauf es ankommt, ist, wie der Organismus die gegebene Situation wahrnimmt. Solange sie mit dem Erkennungsmuster vereinbar ist, das der Organismus ererbt oder sich gebildet hat, löst sie die assoziierte Handlung aus. Das ist die ontogenetisch erste Manifestation dessen, was Piaget 'Assimilation' genannt hat.","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1572028043886°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Mod8g9eka8","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ7Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ7Ӻ/pӶ1Ӻ","endOffset":260°Ӻ,"quote":"((36)) Mitte der Sechzigeijahre, zwanzig Jahre nachdem Norbert Wiener sein erstes Buch über Kybernetik (1965) veröffentlicht hatte, bemerkte Piaget, daß es zwischen dieser neuen Disziplin und seinen eigenen Ideen Parallelen gab. Das grundlegende konstruktivistische Prinzip, daß der menschliche Verstand die Wirklichkeit organisiert, indem er sich selbst organisiert (Piaget, 1937, p.311), verkörperte zweifellos die kybernetische Idee der Selbstorganisation.\n((37)) Zudem gab es auch andere Ähnlichkeiten. Laut Schematheorie finden Akkommodationen statt, wenn ein erwartetes Ergebnis, ein Ziel, nicht erreicht wird. Das ist analog mit der Idee des negativen Feedbacks, die in homöostatischen Mechanismen verkörpert ist.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321035138084076746112":^°°,^"jQuery321035138084076746112":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1572028459834°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Onut2fruoj","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ10Ӻ","startOffset":699,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ10Ӻ/pӶ1Ӻ","endOffset":157°Ӻ,"quote":"So kann zum Beispiel eine Frau ihrer Freundin entrüstet von einer Party berichten: „Stell Dir vor, die Irmgard kam in demselben Kleid wie ich!“; und der Sohn kann der Familie auf einer Ferienfahrt erklären: „Das ist das gleiche Auto, das uns schon vor dem Mittagessen vorgefahren ist.“ - Im ersten Fall sind es zwei Kleider, die sich in Bezug auf die Eigenschaften, die da maßgebend sind, nicht unterscheiden; im zweiten Fall hingegen handelt es sich um ein und dasselbe Auto. Anders ausgedrückt: Im ersten Fall wird auf Grund eines Vergleichs die Zugehörigkeit zweier\nGegenstände zu einer bestimmten Klasse behauptet, im zweiten wird dem Gegenstand zweier zeitlich getrennter Erlebnisse individuelle Identität zugeschrieben.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321065439338157855982":^°°,^"jQuery321065439338157855982":^°°,^"jQuery321065439338157855982":^°°Ӻ,"text":"So kann zum Beispiel eine Frau ihrer Freundin entrüstet von einer Party berichten: „Stell Dir vor, die Irmgard kam in demselben Kleid wie ich!“; und der Sohn kann der Familie auf einer Ferienfahrt erklären: „Das ist das gleiche Auto, das uns schon vor dem Mittagessen vorgefahren ist.“ - Im ersten Fall sind es zwei Kleider, die sich in Bezug auf die Eigenschaften, die da maßgebend sind, nicht unterscheiden; im zweiten Fall hingegen handelt es sich um ein und dasselbe Auto. Anders ausgedrückt: Im ersten Fall wird auf Grund eines Vergleichs die Zugehörigkeit zweier\n\nGegenstände zu einer bestimmten Klasse behauptet, im zweiten wird dem Gegenstand zweier zeitlich getrennter Erlebnisse individuelle Identität zugeschrieben. ","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Beispiel3","data_creacio":1572030733863°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Oxk17plr1m","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ6Ӻ","endOffset":1119°Ӻ,"quote":"((6)) In der Tat dauerte es viele Jahrtausende, bis diese Annahme als fraglich betrachtet und durch das heliozentrische Weltbild ersetzt werden konnte. Und nach knapp vierhundert Jahren wurde dann auch der Sonne ihre zentrale Stellung im Weltraum abgesprochen.\n((7)) Das ist nur ein Beispiel aus einer langen Folge aufgegebener Voraussetzungen. Doch erst in unserem Jahrhundert, das nun zu Ende geht, haben Wissenschaftler einzusehen begonnen, daß ihre Erklärungen der Welt stets auf Begriffen beruhen, die der menschliche Beobachter formt und seinen Erlebnissen aufprägt.\n((8)) Albert Einstein hat das in einer frappanten Metapher ausgedrückt: \nPhysikalische Begriffe sind freie Schöpfungen des Geistes und ergeben sich nicht etwa, wie man sehr leicht zu glauben geneigt ist, zwangsläufig aus den Verhältnissen in der Außenwelt. Bei unseren Bemühungen, die Wirklichkeit zu begreifen, machen wir es manchmal wie ein Mann, der versucht, hinter den Mechanismus einer geschlossenen Taschenuhr zu kommen. Er sieht das Zifferblatt, sieht, wie sich die Zeiger bewegen, und hört sogar das Ticken, doch er hat keine Möglichkeit, das Gehäuse aufzumachen. Wenn er scharfsinnig ist, denkt er sich vielleicht einen Mechanismus aus, dem er alles das zuschreiben kann, was er sieht, doch ist er sich wohl niemals sicher, daß seine Idee die einzige ist, mit der sich seine Beobachtungen erklären lassen. Er ist niemals in der Lage, seine Ideen an Hand des wirklichen Mechanismus nachzuprüfen.\n(Einstein & Infeld, 1950)\n((9)) Die Idee, daß menschliche Beobachter die Begriffe, mit denen sie Erlebnisse und Erfahrungen erfassen, nicht entdecken, sondern erfinden, ist keineswegs neu. Protagoras, im 5. vorchristlichen Jahrhundert, erklärte bereits, „der Mensch sei das Maß aller Dinge\"- Fünfzehnhundert Jahre später formulierte der irische Mystiker Briugena den Gedanken ausführlicher: \n\nDenn ebenso wie der weise Künstler seine Kunst von sich und in sich selbst schafft, so bringt der Verstand seine Vernunft von sich und in sich selbst hervor, in welcher er alle die Dinge, die er machen will, voraussieht und verursacht.\n(Periphyseon, Bd.2, 577a-b)\n((10)) Eine derartige Auffassung konnte sich nicht entwickeln, solange die Menschen ausschließlich im gegenwärtigen Erleben lebten und das Bemühen, im Strom des Sehens, Hörens und Fühlens nicht völlig unterzugehen, für abstraktere Betrachtungen keinen Spielraum ließ. Erst als das Aufreten von Unstimmigkeiten oder Widersprüchen in den Versuchen, das Erleben zu steuern, Zweifel an der Verläßlichkeit der Sinne hervorrief, ist vermutlich die Frage aufgetaucht, ob hinter der Erfahrung eine 'Realität' läge und welcherart die Verbindung zwischen ihr und der Wahrnehmung sein könnte. Darum nehme ich an, daß es skeptische Erwägungen waren, die den ersten Anlaß zu epistemologischen Überlegungen gaben. \n((11)) Wir wissen nicht wann das geschehen ist, doch es war jedenfalls lange vor Protagoras. Hunden Jahre vor ihm, hatte Xenophanes das schreckliche logische Problem bereits klar dargelegt. Selbst wenn es jemandem gelänge, schrieb er, sich die Welt so vorzustellen, wie sie wirklich ist, so könnte er doch nicht wissen, daß es ihm gelungen ist (vgl. Diels, 1957, Xenophanes Fragment 34).","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery32102535428975172782":^°°,^"jQuery32102535428975172782":^°°,^"jQuery32102535428975172782":^°°,^"jQuery32102535428975172782":^°°,^"jQuery32102535428975172782":^°°,^"jQuery32102535428975172782":^°°,^"jQuery32102535428975172782":^°°,^"jQuery32102535428975172782":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1572863275422°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Q1zv6jx428","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ9Ӻ","startOffset":183,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ9Ӻ","endOffset":1243°Ӻ,"quote":"Das klarste Beispiel, das ich bisher gefunden habe, ist die Konstruktion der Mehrzahl. Für Erwachsene ist es selbstverständlich, daß man angesichts einer Tasse den Singular des Wortes verwendet, und wenn es sich um mehrere handelt, den Plural. Die Unterscheidung der beiden Situationen wird zumeist als einfache Sache der Wahrnehmung betrachtet, das heißt als offensichtlich und ganz unproblematisch. Untersucht man jedoch genauer, wie ein Kind den richtigen Gebrauch von Ein- und Mehrzahl lernen kann, dann findet man, daß das Gewahrwerden einer Mehrheit mehr verlangt, als bloße Wahrnehmungen. Hat das Kind gelernt, eine bestimmte Kombination sensomotorischer Elemente als „Tasse“ zu bezeichnen, so kann es angesichts mehrerer dieser Gegenstände sagen: „Tasse, Tasse, Tasse, ...“Ӷ6Ӻ. Vielleicht sagt jemand: „Ja, das sind Tassen,“ und das Kind nimmt den phonetischen Unterschied des Wortes wahr. Vielleicht hat es die abweichende Pluralform auch schon im Gespräch Erwachsener bemerkt. - Aber was sagt ihm, wann die eine und wann die andere Form am Platz ist?","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321017514687672305332":^°°Ӻ,"text":"Das klarste Beispiel, das ich bisher gefunden habe, ist die Konstruktion der Mehrzahl. Für Erwachsene ist es selbstverständlich, daß man angesichts einer Tasse den Singular des Wortes verwendet, und wenn es sich um mehrere handelt, den Plural. Die Unterscheidung der beiden Situationen wird zumeist als einfache Sache der Wahrnehmung betrachtet, das heißt als offensichtlich und ganz unproblematisch. Untersucht man jedoch genauer, wie ein Kind den richtigen Gebrauch von Ein- und Mehrzahl lernen kann, dann findet man, daß das Gewahrwerden einer Mehrheit mehr verlangt, als bloße Wahrnehmungen. Hat das Kind gelernt, eine bestimmte Kombination sensomotorischer Elemente als „Tasse“ zu bezeichnen, so kann es angesichts mehrerer dieser Gegenstände sagen: „Tasse, Tasse, Tasse, ...“Ӷ6Ӻ. Vielleicht sagt jemand: „Ja, das sind Tassen,“ und das Kind nimmt den phonetischen Unterschied des Wortes wahr. Vielleicht hat es die abweichende Pluralform auch schon im Gespräch Erwachsener bemerkt. - Aber was sagt ihm, wann die eine und wann die andere Form am Platz ist?","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Beispiel3","data_creacio":1572029270814°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"R4gyf3fihk","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ9Ӻ","startOffset":1244,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ9Ӻ","endOffset":1723°Ӻ,"quote":"Die Antwort liegt nicht in den wahrgenommenen Dingen, sondern im Bereich der Operationen, die der Wahmehmende ausführt. Um eine Mehrheit zu konstruieren, muß man merken, daß man ein und dieselbe Erkennungsprozedur, die einem den Gegenstand „Tasse“ liefert, mindestens zweimal ausgeführt hat. Die Pluralform des Wortes bedingt diese Wiederholung, denn sie bezieht sich nicht auf Elemente der sinnlichen Wahrnehmung, sondern auf die Art und Weise, wie man Wahrgenommenes verbindet.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321017514687672305332":^°°Ӻ,"text":"Die Antwort liegt nicht in den wahrgenommenen Dingen, sondern im Bereich der Operationen, die der Wahmehmende ausführt. Um eine Mehrheit zu konstruieren, muß man merken, daß man ein und dieselbe Erkennungsprozedur, die einem den Gegenstand „Tasse“ liefert, mindestens zweimal ausgeführt hat. Die Pluralform des Wortes bedingt diese Wiederholung, denn sie bezieht sich nicht auf Elemente der sinnlichen Wahrnehmung, sondern auf die Art und Weise, wie man Wahrgenommenes verbindet.","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1572029281430°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"S063tdhsns","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ6Ӻ","startOffset":35,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ6Ӻ","endOffset":1119°Ӻ,"quote":"Eine derartige Auffassung konnte sich nicht entwickeln, solange die Menschen ausschließlich im gegenwärtigen Erleben lebten und das Bemühen, im Strom des Sehens, Hörens und Fühlens nicht völlig unterzugehen, für abstraktere Betrachtungen keinen Spielraum ließ. Erst als das Aufreten von Unstimmigkeiten oder Widersprüchen in den Versuchen, das Erleben zu steuern, Zweifel an der Verläßlichkeit der Sinne hervorrief, ist vermutlich die Frage aufgetaucht, ob hinter der Erfahrung eine 'Realität' läge und welcherart die Verbindung zwischen ihr und der Wahrnehmung sein könnte. Darum nehme ich an, daß es skeptische Erwägungen waren, die den ersten Anlaß zu epistemologischen Überlegungen gaben. \n((11)) Wir wissen nicht wann das geschehen ist, doch es war jedenfalls lange vor Protagoras. Hunden Jahre vor ihm, hatte Xenophanes das schreckliche logische Problem bereits klar dargelegt. Selbst wenn es jemandem gelänge, schrieb er, sich die Welt so vorzustellen, wie sie wirklich ist, so könnte er doch nicht wissen, daß es ihm gelungen ist (vgl. Diels, 1957, Xenophanes Fragment 34).","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery3210437846440899119062":^°°,^"jQuery3210437846440899119062":^°°,^"jQuery3210437846440899119062":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1571065473758°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Xnuljy6tpv","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ","startOffset":284,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ","endOffset":1554°Ӻ,"quote":"Wie Mach andeutete, können kognitive Strukturen auf zwei Weisen gestört werden: Sie können von Tatsachen widerlegt werden oder mit einander in Konflikt geraten. Die begrifflichen Hindernisse und Störungen sind selten tödlich. Die 'Viabilität' von Begriffen und größeren Begriffsstrukturen, wie etwa Hypothesen oder Theorien, kann normalerweise ohne Lebensgefahr erkundet werden. Gemäß der unterschiedlichen Störungen, gibt es im kognitiven Bereich mehrere Ebenen der Viabilität. Auf der ersten Ebene ist das viabel, was in der jeweiligen Problemsituation zu einer Lösung führt (Machs „Anpassung an die Tatsachen\"). Auf der zweiten Ebene ist die Viabilität eine Frage der begrifflichen Vereinbarkeit, das heißt Abwesenheit von Widersprüchen im Bezug auf die anderen Denk- und Handlungsweisen, die das denkende Subjekt in seiner bisherigen Erfahrung als viabel angenommen hat (Machs „Anpassung an einander\"). Auf der dritten und höchsten Ebene beruht Viabilität auf dem Einklang der eigenen begrifflichen Strukturen mit jenen, von denen man vermutet, daß andere sie als viabel berachten.\n((28)) Auf allen drei Ebenen ist das, was ich 'Viabilität' nenne, der Zustand der Anpassung. Schranken oder Grenzen der Bewegungsfreiheit und bedeutet in keiner Weise eine Angleichung.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery3210394649339896838262":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1571072193381°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Y177jn5fk6","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ11Ӻ","startOffset":271,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ11Ӻ","endOffset":344°Ӻ,"quote":"auf Grund einer einzigen Beobachtung kann man keine Änderung konzipieren.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321045072408094073812":^°°,^"jQuery321045072408094073812":^°°Ӻ,"text":"auf Grund einer einzigen Beobachtung kann man keine Änderung konzipieren.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1572031233762°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Y5jb0z8ekz","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ8Ӻ/pӶ1Ӻ","startOffset":3726,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ8Ӻ","endOffset":4777°Ӻ,"quote":"((42)) Die Sozialpsychologen haben also völlig recht, wenn sie sagen, daß die Bedeutungen von Wörtern in der Gesellschaft ‘ausgehandelt’ werden. Wichtig ist jedoch die Einsicht, daß das letzte Ergebnis dieses fortlaufenden Handels Vereinbarkeit ist, d.h. Kompatibilität im Sinne der Anpassung, und niemals eine absolute Gleichheit. Denn selbst wenn ein Lehrer oder ein Wörterbuch uns den Gebrauch eines Wortes erklärt, so beruht die Bedeutung, die wir uns aufbauen, doch auf der Interpretation unseres eigenen Erlebens. Diese Bedeutung wird dann zweifellos im Laufe sprachlicher Unterhandlungen geschliffen, verfeinert und weiter angepaßt, doch das Material aus dem sie besteht ist und bleibt das Material\n\nder subjektiven Erfahrung.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery3210284332268074519832":^°°,^"jQuery3210284332268074519832":^°°Ӻ,"text":"((42)) Die Sozialpsychologen haben also völlig recht, wenn sie sagen, daß die Bedeutungen von Wörtern in der Gesellschaft ‘ausgehandelt’ werden. Wichtig ist jedoch die Einsicht, daß das letzte Ergebnis dieses fortlaufenden Handels Vereinbarkeit ist, d.h. Kompatibilität im Sinne der Anpassung, und niemals eine absolute Gleichheit. Denn selbst wenn ein Lehrer oder ein Wörterbuch uns den Gebrauch eines Wortes erklärt, so beruht die Bedeutung, die wir uns aufbauen, doch auf der Interpretation unseres eigenen Erlebens. Diese Bedeutung wird dann zweifellos im Laufe sprachlicher Unterhandlungen geschliffen, verfeinert und weiter angepaßt, doch das Material aus dem sie besteht ist und bleibt das Material der subjektiven Erfahrung.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1572029087222°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Zdexwfdka0","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ5Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ5Ӻ","endOffset":1205°Ӻ,"quote":"((29)) Die wichtigste Anwendung des Anpassungsbegriffs in Piagets Theorie war seine Einführung des Handlungsschemas, das die Prinzipien der Assimilation und der Akkommodation mit sich brachte. Als Biologe war er mit der Bedeutung von Reflexen vertraut und beobachtete die reflexiven Verhalten in seinen eigenen Kindern. In der einschlägigen Literatur heißt es zumeist, daß Reflexe aus zwei Teilen bestehen: Eine auslösende Situation und eine fest mit ihr assoziierte Handlung. Piaget wurde sich klar darüber, daß derartige Verbindungen durch Mutationen entstanden sind und im Erbgut der Arten allgemein wurden, weil die Wirkung der automatisch hervorgerufenen Handlung den Individuen, die eben diese Mutationen besaßen, einen Vorteil im Überleben bot. Er sah den Reflex also nicht als zweiteilig, sondern als aus drei Teilen bestehend.\n\n\n((30)) Außerdem hatte Piaget auch bemerkt, daß die Reflexe des Säuglings keineswegs so fest und unabänderlich sind, wie die Lehrbücher behaupten. Einerseits verschwinden sie früher oder später im Laufe der individuellen Entwicklung und andererseits ist die Situation, die sie auslöst, vom Gesichtspunkt des Beobachters aus nicht immer genau die gleiche.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321071211942496612752":^°°,^"jQuery321071211942496612752":^°°,^"jQuery321071211942496612752":^°°,^"jQuery321071211942496612752":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1572028051094°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Dhexxrmwek","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ","endOffset":188°Ӻ,"quote":"In a theory that describes itself as circular, it is inappropriate to demand a beginning. A circle is characterized by, among other things, the fact that it has no beginning.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321074965967449651882":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1569606405580°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"E12cs7qh1d","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ2Ӻ","startOffset":1893,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ2Ӻ","endOffset":2105°Ӻ,"quote":"From that angle, then, it becomes clear that, in the autopoietic organism also, “expectations” are nothing but re-presentations of experiences that are now projected into the direction of the not-yet-experienced.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery3210732997045023672":^°°Ӻ,"text":"From that angle, then, it becomes clear that, in the autopoietic organism also, “expectations” are nothing but re-presentations of experiences that are now projected into the direction of the not-yet-experienced.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1569599597300°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Es4fd0aw79","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ","startOffset":188,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ","endOffset":858°Ӻ,"quote":"In Maturana’s edifice every point arises out of the preceding one – much as when, in thick fog on an Alpine glacier, one places one foot in front of the other without ever seeing what lies further ahead or further behind one; and as sometimes happens in such a fog, after hours of walking, one realizes that one is walking in one’s own footsteps. The fact that one has begun the circle at a specific point could be perceived only from a higher vantage point – if the fog had lifted and made possible a view. But the fog that obstructs our view of ontic reality cannot lift, because, as Kant already saw, it is inextricably built into our ways and means of experiencing.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321074965967449651882":^°°Ӻ,"text":" In Maturana’s edifice every point arises out of the preceding one – much as when, in thick fog on an Alpine glacier, one places one foot in front of the other without ever seeing what lies further ahead or further behind one; and as sometimes happens in such a fog, after hours of walking, one realizes that one is walking in one’s own footsteps. The fact that one has begun the circle at a specific point could be perceived only from a higher vantage point – if the fog had lifted and made possible a view. But the fog that obstructs our view of ontic reality cannot lift, because, as Kant already saw, it is inextricably built into our ways and means of experiencing.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Beispiel3","data_creacio":1569606391691°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Kr99ppmmzt","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ","startOffset":859,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ","endOffset":1077°Ӻ,"quote":"For that reason, a meticulous investigation such as Maturana’s, can only show that, regardless of where we step into the circle, we can neither come to an end of the path, nor, if we retraced our steps, to a beginning.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321081902373727791912":^°°Ӻ,"text":"For that reason, a meticulous investigation such as Maturana’s, can only show that, regardless of where we step into the circle, we can neither come to an end of the path, nor, if we retraced our steps, to a beginning.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1569604724762°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Qutoep4kha","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ3Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ3Ӻ","endOffset":950°Ӻ,"quote":"In an autopoietic organism, every perturbation, every experience, every internal event changes the structure of the network that constitutes the organism. These changes, of course, are not all of the same kind. Some could be the forming of new connections and thus of new pathways in the network; others could be what one might call “lubricating” or facilitating an already existing path. The observer, who speaks of re-living, must be able to distinguish a path that is being generated for the first time, from one that was connected at a prior occasion. This would seem necessary, regardless of whether the description concerns the operations of another organism or the observer him- or herself. But the repetition of an experience can be ascertained only if the observer is able, at least temporarily, to step out of the stream of experience, in order to distinguish the use of an already trodden path from the opening of a new one.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321098245861858104272":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1569601250298°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"R51yk7xdty","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ3Ӻ","startOffset":950,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ3Ӻ","endOffset":1022°Ӻ,"quote":"In my terminology that means the observer must be capable of reflection.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321098245861858104272":^°°Ӻ,"text":"In my terminology that means the observer must be capable of reflection.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1569600960609°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Srbatz3m8v","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ","endOffset":1158°Ӻ,"quote":"For me, one of the most difficult points in Maturana’s conceptual edifice was his oft repeated assertion that the observer, too, could be derived, without further assumptions, from his formulation of the basic biological conditions governing the interactions and the linguistic activity of autopoietic organisms. It took me more than a decade to construct for myself an interpretation of this derivation. If I present it here, I do so with the emphatic warning that it is, indeed, a personal interpretation that makes no claim whatever to authenticity.\nAccording to Maturana, all linguistic activity or “languaging” takes place “in the praxis of living: we human beings find ourselves as living systems immersed in it.”Ӷ6Ӻ Languaging, for Maturana, does not mean conveying news or any kind of “information”, but refers to a social activity that arises from a coordination of actions that have been tuned by mutual adaptation. Without such coordination of acting there would be no possibility of describing and, consequently, no way for the distinctions made by an actor to become conscious. To become aware of distinctions, is called observing.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery32100223180193765798452":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1569596976399°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"T6z187684u","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ2Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ2Ӻ","endOffset":1893°Ӻ,"quote":"Given that Maturana, at various places in his writings, makes it very clear that he considers unacceptable the concept that is usually linked with the word “representation”, it may surprise one at first that, in the passage quoted here, he bases a discrimination of conversations on “expectations”. In my analysis, to have an expectation means to represent to oneself something that one has not yet isolated by means of distinctions in the present flow of actual experience. The apparent contradiction disappears, however, if one considers that the English word “representation” is used to designate several different concepts, two among which are designated in German by the two words Darstellung and Vorstellung.Ӷ9Ӻ The first comes to the mind of English-speakers whenever there is no explicit indication that another is intended. This concept is close to the notion of “picture” and as such involves the replication, in a physical or formal way, of something else that is categorized as “original”. The second concept is close to the notion of “conceptual construct”, and the German word for it, Vorstellung, is central in the philosophies of Kant and Schopenhauer.\nMaturana’s aversion against the word “representation” springs from the fact that, like Kant and Schopenhauer, he excludes conceptual pictures or replications of an objective, ontic reality in the cognitive domain of organisms. In contrast, re- presentations in Piaget’s sense are repetitions or reconstructions of items that were distinguished in previous experience. As Maturana explained in the course of the discussions at the ASC Conference in October 1988, such representations are possible also in the autopoietic model. Maturana spoke there of re-living an experience, and from my perspective this coincides with the concept of representation as Vorstellung, without which there could be no reflection.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery3210732997045023672":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1569599607634°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Xb6s2cnbe9","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ","startOffset":1159,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ","endOffset":1278°Ӻ,"quote":"To observe oneself as the maker of distinctions, therefore, is no more and no less than to become conscious of oneself.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery32100223180193765798452":^°°Ӻ,"text":"To observe oneself as the maker of distinctions, therefore, is no more and no less than to become conscious of oneself.","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1569596955372°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Axnbp6kdcr","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ2Ӻ","startOffset":676,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ2Ӻ","endOffset":806°Ӻ,"quote":"Knowledge thus turns into a tool in the pursuit of equilibrium, and its purpose is no longer the representation of a ‘real’ world.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery3210301539062698905072":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1568989386733°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"E1csgrzbn1","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ3Ӻ","startOffset":2628,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ3Ӻ","endOffset":2680°Ӻ,"quote":"We know that we can reflect, but we do not know how.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321039732441136947062":^°°Ӻ,"text":"We know that we can reflect, but we do not know how.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1568990316512°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Fvdqb4z4lv","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ3Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ3Ӻ/pӶ1Ӻ","endOffset":891°Ӻ,"quote":"Piaget elaborated the notion of reflection on mental operations, and provided a model for how it operates in conjunction with abstraction and generalization. Thus he provided a theory of learning that successfully resolves the so-called ‘learning paradox’, a problem we inherited from Plato. It concerns the generation of new knowledge, which in Plato’s theory was God-given and accessible only through the mystical pipeline of reincarnation. Piaget’s reflective abstraction opened the door to fortuitous conjecture, the kind of imaginative ‘what-if’ assumptions that Charles Peirce incorporated in logic as abduction. \nI see abduction as an integral part of accommodation. Peirce described it as a simple process. If we experience a surprising event – it may be a pleasant surprise or a disagreeable one – we try to discover what caused it. If we isolate some novelty in the situation, we may conjecture a rule that says: if such and such is the case, we get this surprising result. \nThis conjecture constitutes an abduction, because it is not drawn from prior experience. We may then test the hypothetical rule – and if it is confirmed, we have an accommodation, because we have in fact generated a new rule that can serve us as a scheme of action. There is nothing paradoxical in this form of learning, nor does it require a mystical explanation. What it does require is an active mind that is able to reflect upon what it perceives and upon its own operations. There is no doubt that we have such minds.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321039732441136947062":^°°,^"jQuery321039732441136947062":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1568990355993°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"G365xnoeih","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ1Ӻ","startOffset":277,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ1Ӻ","endOffset":607°Ӻ,"quote":"The case of the mollusks may serve as an example. It is as though a growing mollusk could notice that the water around it flows quickly, and that the shell it is building had therefore better be flat, so that it offers less resistance. From an evolutionary point of view, such a notion is even worse than the Lamarckian heresy.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321059487672820891912":^°°Ӻ,"text":"The case of the mollusks may serve as an example. It is as though a growing mollusk could notice that the water around it flows quickly, and that the shell it is building had therefore better be flat, so that it offers less resistance. From an evolutionary point of view, such a notion is even worse than the Lamarckian heresy. ","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Beispiel3","data_creacio":1568987219276°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"K95r6yeses","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ","startOffset":816,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ","endOffset":1139°Ӻ,"quote":"What Piaget intended, was that the building of a mollusk’s shell is genetically determined as a function, but what this function produces, may depend on the specific constraints of the environment. The important thing is that the mollusk builds a shell that allows it to survive in spite of the constraints that hem it in.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321059487672820891912":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1568987326948°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"M7433rzngv","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ1Ӻ","endOffset":277°Ӻ,"quote":"Piaget came to this conclusion, not as a physicist, not as a psychologist, but as a biologist. From the theory of evolution, he imported the concept of adaptation into the study of cognition. \nTo grasp the full extent of this epistemological shift, one needs to be clear about what precisely ‘adaptation’ means and how it works. There is a wide-spread notion that adaptation is an activity carried out by living organisms when they are being pressed by the environment.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321059487672820891912":^°°,^"jQuery321059487672820891912":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1568987185738°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Mj1hrb4fob","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ2Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ2Ӻ","endOffset":675°Ӻ,"quote":"Adaptation is, in fact, a negative concept. It does not require any knowledge of what really exists – it merely implies that whatever is functionally successful will live and reproduce itself. It is the result of trial and the elimination of what does not work. The fact that an organism is ‘adapted’ only shows that it has found a way of coping with the world in which it lives – it does not show what a world might be like before it has been perceived and conceived by a particular living organism. \nThe focus, now, is on knowledge as an instrument of adaptation that enables the organism to steer clear of external perturbations and internal contradictions.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery3210301539062698905072":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1568989370415°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"N2w7shbk55","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ3Ӻ/pӶ1Ӻ","startOffset":891,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ3Ӻ/pӶ1Ӻ","endOffset":1672°Ӻ,"quote":"Let me give you a very simple example. It is a charming anecdote I read, but cannot remember where. A little girl is walking, and every now and then she pushes her ball to roll ahead. As the path begins to go up a hill, the ball, to her surprise, comes rolling back. And she asks: “How does the ball know where I am?.” \nThe little girl’s question demonstrates that she is at least to some extent aware of her experience and can reflect upon it. Only a reflective mind, a mind that is looking for order in the baffling world of experience, could formulate such a question. It is the kind of question that, after innumerable further trials and untenable assumptions, would lead an imaginative thinker with the stamina of Galilei, to an explanatory principle such as ‘gravitation’.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321039732441136947062":^°°Ӻ,"text":"Let me give you a very simple example. It is a charming anecdote I read, but cannot remember where. A little girl is walking, and every now and then she pushes her ball to roll ahead. As the path begins to go up a hill, the ball, to her surprise, comes rolling back. And she asks: “How does the ball know where I am?.” The little girl’s question demonstrates that she is at least to some extent aware of her experience and can reflect upon it. Only a reflective mind, a mind that is looking for order in the baffling world of experience, could formulate such a question. It is the kind of question that, after innumerable further trials and untenable assumptions, would lead an imaginative thinker with the stamina of Galilei, to an explanatory principle such as ‘gravitation’. ","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Beispiel3","data_creacio":1568990345766°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"W3d6zzkyjz","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ3Ӻ","startOffset":2307,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ3Ӻ","endOffset":2628°Ӻ,"quote":"We have no idea what it is that gives us this internal awareness and the power to reflect. But we know that we have it. As you are listening to me now, you can become aware of your own listening. And as I am speaking to you, I can become aware of what I am doing and ask myself, why can I not say all this more simply? –","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321039732441136947062":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1568990364064°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Waq0mnarlo","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ","startOffset":1139,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ","endOffset":1239°Ӻ,"quote":"To put it generally, an organism must fit, i.e. be viable within the constraints of the environment.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321059487672820891912":^°°Ӻ,"text":"To put it generally, an organism must fit, i.e. be viable within the constraints of the environment.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1568987336910°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"A6ez27ubbp","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ3Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ3Ӻ","endOffset":479°Ӻ,"quote":"If you consider the relative distances of the individual stars it becomes clear that there is only a very small area of the universe (as astronomers have taught us to conceive it) from which the five stars could be said to form a double-u. Move the observer a few light-years to the right or the left, the double-u would disappear. Move the observer 50 light-years forward, and he or she could construct only a triangle with the three stars that remained in front.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery3210190481809586965032":^°°,^"jQuery3210190481809586965032":^°°Ӻ,"text":"If you consider the relative distances of the individual stars it becomes clear that there is only a very small area of the universe (as astronomers have taught us to conceive it) from which the five stars could be said to form a double-u. Move the observer a few light-years to the right or the left, the double-u would disappear. Move the observer 50 light-years forward, and he or she could construct only a triangle with the three stars that remained in front. ","category":"Beispiel3","data_creacio":1566399678234°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"C1hymz28by","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/pӶ1Ӻ","startOffset":96,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/pӶ3Ӻ","endOffset":364°Ӻ,"quote":"I can illustrate this by a simple example. English text books of linguistics frequently give “the boy hit the ball” as example of a simple sentence that contains a subject, a verb, and an object. In the British Isles this sentence usually calls forth the re-presentation of a boy armed with a tennis racket or a golf club. In the United States he will be imagined to hold a baseball bat. This is a very minor difference. However, if the sentence has to be translated into German, it turns out to be far more complicated. The translator has to know more about the situational context, because the “simple” sentence turns out to be ambiguous. It would be appropriate in several situations, each of which requires different words in German. \nHere are the four most likely ones: \n\nFig.6: “The boy hits the ball” \nIf the boy hits the ball with a racket, a club, or a bat, the German verb has to be schlagen; if he hits it with an arrow or a bullet, it would be treffen; if he hits it with his bicycle, it would be stossen plus the preposition auf; and if he hits the ball when falling from the balcony, it would be fallen … auf or schlagen … auf.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321032287351973624812":^°°,^"jQuery321032287351973624812":^°°Ӻ,"text":"I can illustrate this by a simple example. English text books of linguistics frequently give “the boy hit the ball” as example of a simple sentence that contains a subject, a verb, and an object. In the British Isles this sentence usually calls forth the re-presentation of a boy armed with a tennis racket or a golf club. In the United States he will be imagined to hold a baseball bat. This is a very minor difference. However, if the sentence has to be translated into German, it turns out to be far more complicated. The translator has to know more about the situational context, because the “simple” sentence turns out to be ambiguous. It would be appropriate in several situations, each of which requires different words in German. Here are the four most likely ones:\n\n\nFig.6: “The boy hits the ball” If the boy hits the ball with a racket, a club, or a bat, the German verb has to be schlagen; if he hits it with an arrow or a bullet, it would be treffen; if he hits it with his bicycle, it would be stossen plus the preposition auf; and if he hits the ball when falling from the balcony, it would be fallen … auf or schlagen … auf.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Beispiel3","data_creacio":1566401048462°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Di3eshkit5","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ3Ӻ","startOffset":479,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ3Ӻ","endOffset":1046°Ӻ,"quote":"One might call this the relativity of the point of view. But there is also the relativity of construction. The connections between the five stars are not in the sky. They have to be imagined by the observer – and there is nothing in the sensory material that imposes the formation of a double-u. The stars could equally well be connected differently: \n\nFig.5: Alternative Constructs \n\nThe Greeks called it a crown because this was a generally accessible analogy in their world. The double-u of our alphabet supplied an analogy that was more easily accessible to us.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321029807212534540472":^°°,^"jQuery321029807212534540472":^°°,^"jQuery321029807212534540472":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1566400170045°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Ebc43zoltc","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ3Ӻ","startOffset":326,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ3Ӻ/pӶ1Ӻ","endOffset":506°Ӻ,"quote":"A striking example are the constellations we all can learn to see, name, and recognize on a clear night. Take the one called Cassiopeia. It has been known since the beginning human history. The Greeks saw it as the crown of a mythical queen and gave it her name. We see it more prosaically as a “W” in the vicinity of the Polar Star. \n\nFig.4: The Constellation of Cassiopeia \nIf you consider the relative distances of the individual stars it becomes clear that there is only a very small area of the universe (as astronomers have taught us to conceive it) from which the five stars could be said to form a double-u. Move the observer a few light-years to the right or the left, the double-u would disappear. Move the observer 50 light-years forward, and he or she could construct only a triangle with the three stars that remained in front.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321051508804293252722":^°°,^"jQuery321051508804293252722":^°°,^"jQuery321051508804293252722":^°°,^"jQuery321051508804293252722":^°°Ӻ,"text":"A striking example are the constellations we all can learn to see, name, and recognize on a clear night. Take the one called Cassiopeia. It has been know\nn since the beginning human history. The Greeks saw it as the crown of a mythical queen and gave it her name. We see it more prosaically as a “W” in the vicinity of the Polar Star.\n\n\nFig.4: The Constellation of Cassiopeia If you consider the relative distances of the individual stars it becomes clear that there is only a very small area of the universe (as astronomers have taught us to conceive it) from which the five stars could be said to form a double-u. Move the observer a few light-years to the right or the left, the double-u would disappear. Move the ob\nserver 50 light-years forward, and he or she could construct only a triangle with the three stars that remained in front.","category":"Beispiel3","data_creacio":1566400506067°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Ewvpdb2m4g","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/pӶ1Ӻ","endOffset":95°Ӻ,"quote":"This in no way denies the fact that the continuous social and linguistic interactions among the members of a group or society lead to a progressive mutual adaptation of the individuals’ semantic connections. These interactions inevitably bring about the fact that the members of a language group tend to construct the meanings of words in ways that prove compatible with the usage of the community. This is to say, they develop a more or less common way of “seeing the world”. But what they see is nevertheless their subjective construction. \nThat this is a viable assumption becomes clear the moment one considers more than one language.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321032287351973624812":^°°,^"jQuery321032287351973624812":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1566400970989°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"H4w2btqhvp","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ2Ӻ","startOffset":1389,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ2Ӻ","endOffset":1621°Ӻ,"quote":"Just as, for instance, the Morse code links short and long experiences of beeps to re-presentations of letters of the alphabet, so in language, sound images are linked to concepts, that is, to re-presentations of experiential units.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery32107882752453002952":^°°Ӻ,"text":"Just as, for instance, the Morse code links short and long experiences of beeps to re-presentations of letters of the alphabet, so in language, sound images are linked to concepts, that is, to re-presentations of experiential units.","category":"Beispiel3","data_creacio":1566398675325°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Mml0l5dxbg","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ","startOffset":192,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ","endOffset":1587°Ӻ,"quote":"Having done this, they must separate in their auditory experience those acoustic units that belong to a linguistic system from other units that do not. Only then can they tentatively associate specific items of the first type (concepts) with items of the second (sound-images of words). That children do all this unawares does not support the notion that it happens by itself without any effort on their part. The semantic connection has to be formed in their heads. \nMany authors, e.g. Rorty (1982) and Gergen (1994), suggest that whatever we want to think of as ‘meaning’ is acquired in the course of what Wittgenstein (1953) called “language games”. This rightly points to the fact that children cannot guess all by themselves which sounds constitute words and what their meanings might be. It can only be done in the contexts of social interaction. Language games are the occasion for the construction of meaning, But they do not explain how children do it. Social Constructionists (a term invented by Kenneth Gergen to distinguish his way of thinking from that of other constructivists) are obviously aware of the problem. Gergen explicitly states: “the constructionist is centrally concerned with such matters as negotiation, cooperation, conflict, rhetoric, ritual, roles, social scenarios, and the like, but avoids psychological explanations of microsocial process” (Gergen, 1994; p.25).","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery3210077187936951437892":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1566390174679°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"O45mhvf595","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ2Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ2Ӻ/pӶ1Ӻ","endOffset":389°Ӻ,"quote":"Be this as it may, my main interest is in devising theoretical principles that might show at least one way that could lead to these important competencies. De Saussure’s model makes very clear that the semantic connection in the first place links an individual’s generalized experience of words with the individual’s generalized experience of other items. For entities that have been generalized German provides the word “Vorstellung”, a word that is central in Kant’s analysis of reason. In English, it has traditionally been rendered by “representation”, and this was thoroughly misleading. In the English-speaker the word “representation” inevitably implies that somewhere there is an original which is now being represented. This interpretation makes it practically impossible to understand Kant’s theory of knowledge; and when it is applied to language it leads to the notion of “reference”, i.e. that words refer to objects in a world thought to be independent of the speakers. \nIf you think about this, you sooner or later stumble over the question how you could possibly have established a semantic connection between a word and an object, if both are supposed to be independent of your experience. The answer becomes obvious in Saussure’s diagram: The semantic connection – one cannot repeat this often enough – can be made only between entities in someone’s head.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery3210202359337057632762":^°°,^"jQuery3210202359337057632762":^°°,^"jQuery3210202359337057632762":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1566399030852°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Olvapcssex","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ","endOffset":192°Ӻ,"quote":"Whatever one assumes to be genetically determined in children, it is they themselves who must actively isolate units in their experiential field and abstract them into concepts.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery3210077187936951437892":^°°Ӻ,"text":"Whatever one assumes to be genetically determined in children, it is they themselves who must actively isolate units in their experiential field and abstract them into concepts. ","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1566390183514°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Pht7smbl07","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ3Ӻ","startOffset":1736,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ3Ӻ","endOffset":2246°Ӻ,"quote":"The point I want to make is that it is the experiencer who generates the image, the configuration that becomes the “representation”, and that this configuration is always one of several others that are equally possible within the constraints of the sensory material. This, I claim, goes for all the experiential units or things to which we give names, and it is the reason why I maintain that meanings are always subjective. They are subjective in the sense that they have to be constructed by the experiencer.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321051508804293252722":^°°Ӻ,"text":"The point I want to make is that it is the experiencer who generates the image, the configuration that becomes the “representation”, and that this configuration is always one of several others that are equally possible within the constraints of the sensory material. This, I claim, goes for all the experiential units or things to which we give names, and it is the reason why I maintain that meanings are always subjective. They are subjective in the sense that they have to be constructed by the experiencer.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1566400652556°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Qyxq84o1xl","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ3Ӻ","startOffset":1046,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ3Ӻ","endOffset":1470°Ӻ,"quote":"The point I want to make is that it is the experiencer who generates the image, the configuration that becomes the “representation”, and that this configuration is always one of several others that are equally possible within the constraints of the sensory material. This, I claim, goes for all the experiential units or things to which we give names, and it is the reason why I maintain that meanings are always subjective.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321029807212534540472":^°°Ӻ,"text":"The point I want to make is that it is the experiencer who generates the image, the configuration that becomes the “representation”, and that this configuration is always one of several others that are equally possible within the constraints of the sensory material. This, I claim, goes for all the experiential units or things to which we give names, and it is the reason why I maintain that meanings are always subjective.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1566399980922°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Rrdabv6ct7","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/pӶ3Ӻ","startOffset":365,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ","endOffset":3697°Ӻ,"quote":"None of these verbs could be used in any of the other three situations. \nThe conceptual structures called up by the German verbs are more complex than the one called up by “to hit”. They all contain the meaning of the English verb, i.e. the construct of an object’s sudden impact with something else; but they also contain specifications of the event that are not part of the English meaning. As a result, English-speakers who want to express themselves in German must learn not only different words but also a different way of seeing the details of the relevant experiences. \nBetween any two languages you might choose, there are innumerable differences of conceptualization. If they lie in the area of perceptual or sensorimotor construction, they sooner or later become noticeable and corrigible in practical situations of interaction. If, however, they are a matter of abstract conceptual construction, such as the meaning of the German word Vorstellung and that of the English word “representation”, they may cause lasting misinterpretation because their incompatibility rarely becomes apparent on the surface. \n\n\nI have chosen examples of the differential construction of meaning in different languages because they manifest themselves in the daily experience of anyone who lives in more than one language. But the meanings individual users of one and the same language construct are no more homogeneous. Although individuals necessarily adapt the meanings they associate with words to what they perceive to be the usage of the community, the stuff those meanings consist of is always part of their own subjective experience. Consequently it is misleading to speak of “shared” meanings. The four terms I mentioned in the abstract involve meaning in one way or another and tend to reinforce the notion that its structure is a well-known fixed entity. This, in my view, inevitably leads to trouble.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321032287351973624812":^°°,^"jQuery321032287351973624812":^°°,^"jQuery321032287351973624812":^°°,^"jQuery321032287351973624812":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1566401216644°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Rsk7998r5o","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ3Ӻ/pӶ1Ӻ","startOffset":507,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ3Ӻ","endOffset":1736°Ӻ,"quote":"One might call this the relativity of the point of view. But there is also the relativity of construction. The connections between the five stars are not in the sky. They have to be imagined by the observer – and there is nothing in the sensory material that imposes the formation of a double-u. The stars could equally well be connected differently: \n\nFig.5: Alternative Constructs \n\n\nThe Greeks called it a crown because this was a generally accessible analogy in their world. The double-u of our alphabet supplied an analogy that was more easily accessible to us.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321051508804293252722":^°°,^"jQuery321051508804293252722":^°°,^"jQuery321051508804293252722":^°°,^"jQuery321051508804293252722":^°°,^"jQuery321051508804293252722":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1566400633435°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Uigwach9pn","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ3Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ3Ӻ","endOffset":325°Ӻ,"quote":"The point I want to stress is that from our perspective it is attention and above all its movements that generate the conceptual structures and thus the things we talk about. These items, as I said before, cannot have an existence of their own but originate through the operations of an experiencer or observer.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321051508804293252722":^°°Ӻ,"text":"The point I want to stress is that from our perspective it is attention and above all its movements that generate the conceptual structures and thus the things we talk about. These items, as I said before, cannot have an existence of their own but originate through the operations of an experiencer or observer.","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1566400385764°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Z6pnfx3p0k","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ","startOffset":3698,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ","endOffset":4065°Ӻ,"quote":"What speakers of a language have constructed as the meanings of the words they use, is at best compatible in the linguistic interactions with other speakers; but such compatibility remains forever relative to the limited number of actual interactions the individual has had in his or her past. What speakers have learned to mean always remains their own construction.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321032287351973624812":^°°,^"jQuery321032287351973624812":^°°Ӻ,"text":"What speakers of a language have constructed as the meanings of the words they use, is at best compatible in the linguistic interactions with other speakers; but such compatibility remains forever relative to the limited number of actual interactions the individual has had in his or her past. What speakers have learned to mean always remains their own construction.","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1566401225994°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Zkhy51itjb","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ2Ӻ","startOffset":1625,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ2Ӻ","endOffset":1833°Ӻ,"quote":"The problem of meaning thus comes down to the problem of how we generate units in our experience such that we can associate them with words, and how we relate these units to form larger conceptual structures.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery3210202359337057632762":^°°,^"jQuery3210202359337057632762":^°°Ӻ,"text":"The problem of meaning thus comes down to the problem of how we generate units in our experience such that we can associate them with words, and how we relate these units to form larger conceptual structures.","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1566399048744°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Au72zqf9m7","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ6Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ6Ӻ","endOffset":947°Ӻ,"quote":"This, it seems to me, could have some far-reaching consequences. Once Others are seen as an epistemological requirement needed for the construction of our own experiential reality, we may be able to counteract some of the influence the concept of competition has wielded for so long owing to its unfortunate and largely erroneous association with the theory of evolution. Similarly, since the notion of “controlling others” tends to destroy the possibility of corroborating the viability of one’s own cognitive structures, the constructivist approach to ethics would foster tolerance.\nWhen competition and control of others are eliminated, we may come to have an interactive pattern of mature humanity. That pattern I would call “collaborative dialectic”, because it would be very much like the pattern of biological evolution which, according to the most recent findings seems far less competitive than coevolutionary.\n\nConclusion:","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321011671463751757862":^°°,^"jQuery321011671463751757862":^°°,^"jQuery321011671463751757862":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563971749954°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Ca15tuuxgp","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ3Ӻ","startOffset":1371,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ3Ӻ","endOffset":1446°Ӻ,"quote":"This, I believe, is as close as a constructivist can come to “objectivity”.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321011671463751757862":^°°Ӻ,"text":"This, I believe, is as close as a constructivist can come to “objectivity”.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1563971569151°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Gpv4lxsdlo","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ2Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ2Ӻ","endOffset":1106°Ӻ,"quote":"Saying that we have no cognitive access to a world beyond our experience may suggest to some that any such theory of knowledge must be very close to, if not identical with, the dreaded heresy of solipsism. I do not think that this applies to the kind of constructivism I have been promoting. \nThe reason is simply that, although we deny the traditionally posited iconic relation between knowledge and ontological reality, we substitute for it a different but no less specific relation. Unlike the notion of “truth”, which requires a match, i.e. shared points, between the picture and what it is to represent, the notion of “viability” requires fit which, in this context, could be characterized precisely by the absence of shared points. The concept of “viability”, however, does imply that there are or will be obstacles and constraints that impinge on whatever aspires to becoming viable. It is not the case that “anything goes”, and it is precisely through its obstructions that ontological “reality” manifests itself: by impeding some of our actions and by thwarting some of our efforts.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321011671463751757862":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563971541283°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Mbi2owta6y","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ3Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ3Ӻ","endOffset":1371°Ӻ,"quote":"This creation of Others in our likeness does not happen all at once. It begins quite harmlessly with the child imputing the capability of spontaneous movement to items in the experiential field that do not stay put. It is followed by the imputation of visual and auditory senses to animals, and it is crowned by the imputation of goaldirected behavior, deliberate planning, and experiential learning to Others whom one considers “like” oneself. Once this level of sophistication is reached, one spends a great deal of time explaining, predicting, and attempting to control these Others. That is to say, one now has models of moving, perceiving, planning, thinking, feeling, and even philosophizing Others in one’s experiential field, models to whom one imputes the kinds of concepts, schemes, and rules one might oneself abstract from one’s experience. These models incorporate some of the knowledge we ourselves have found useful and thus viable in our own dealings with experience. If, then, we are able to make a successful prediction about any one of these Others, the particular piece of knowledge which, in making the prediction, we have imputed to the Other, acquires a second order of viability: we now feel justified in saying that this piece of knowledge was found to be viable not only in our own sphere of actions but also in that of the Other.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321011671463751757862":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563971595718°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Msuzampwv2","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ1Ӻ","endOffset":1131°Ӻ,"quote":"For epistemologists, then, it may be useful to look at how we come to have that kind of knowledge. From my point of view, Humberto Maturana has provided the most lucid analysis of the procedure that is usually called “the scientific method”.Ӷ1Ӻ Maturana divides the procedure into four steps: \nOBSERVATION. In order to count as “scientific”, an observation must be carried out under certain constraints, and the constraints must be made explicit (so that the observation can be repeated).\nObservations may then be related by an HYPOTHESIS, usually an inductive hypothesis that involves causal connections.\nBy deduction a PREDICTION is derived from the hypothesis, a prediction that concerns an event that has not yet been observed.\nThe scientist then sets out to observe the predicted event; again, the OBSERVATION must take place under certain explicit constraints.\nThroughout the four steps, what matters is experience. Observing is a way of experiencing and, to be scientific, it must be regulated by certain constraints. The hypotheses by means of which one then relates one’s observations, connect experiences, not “things-in-themselves”. The predictions, again, regard experiences, not events in some “real” world that lies beyond one’s actual experience.\nSeen in this way, the scientific method does not refer to, nor does it need, an ontological reality – it concerns exclusively the experiential world of observers.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321011671463751757862":^°°,^"jQuery321011671463751757862":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563971474953°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Nf8ywugeo2","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ5Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ5Ӻ","endOffset":239°Ӻ,"quote":"In the light of what was said above about the levels of the reality that we construct of our experiences, Others are of very great importance: without them, we could not attain the highest level of that experiential reality.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321011671463751757862":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563971703987°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Pyr8jth46d","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ6Ӻ","startOffset":947,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ6Ӻ","endOffset":1435°Ӻ,"quote":"If knowledge can be considered the result of the adaptive effort of cognitive organisms in their struggle to maintain their equilibrium in the face of perturbations, it does not seem reasonable for them to use this knowledge to compete with one another. On the contrary, it seems that in order to maintain not only their own equilibrium but also that of the planet on which they find themselves living they would have to foster in every conceivable way every kind of mutual collaboration.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321011671463751757862":^°°Ӻ,"text":"If knowledge can be considered the result of the adaptive effort of cognitive organisms in their struggle to maintain their equilibrium in the face of perturbations, it does not seem reasonable for them to use this knowledge to compete with one another. On the contrary, it seems that in order to maintain not only their own equilibrium but also that of the planet on which they find themselves living they would have to foster in every conceivable way every kind of mutual collaboration.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1563971734098°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Rgsagcgxj3","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ2Ӻ","startOffset":1106,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ2Ӻ","endOffset":1338°Ӻ,"quote":"The salient point in all this is that, since this “reality” manifests itself only in failures of our acting and/or thinking, we have no way of describing it except in terms of actions and thoughts that turned out to be unsuccessful.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321011671463751757862":^°°,^"jQuery321011671463751757862":^°°Ӻ,"text":"The salient point in all this is that, since this “reality” manifests itself only in failures of our acting and/or thinking, we have no way of describing it except in terms of actions and thoughts that turned out to be unsuccessful.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1563971500982°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"S1dg1cdpih","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ5Ӻ","startOffset":239,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ5Ӻ","endOffset":260°Ӻ,"quote":"Thus, we need Others.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321011671463751757862":^°°Ӻ,"text":"Thus, we need Others.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1563971718022°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Uonkg7x2bd","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ","startOffset":1440,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ","endOffset":2399°Ӻ,"quote":"Scientific knowledge, then, does not and could not yield a picture of the “real” world; it provides more or less reliable ways of dealing with experience. Hence it may be viable, but it can make no claim to “Truth”, if “Truth” is to be understood as a correspondence to the ontologically real world. On the other hand, this way of looking at knowledge, be it scientific or other, makes it immune against the sceptics’ perennial argument. Since this constructivist notion of knowledge does not claim to provide a picture of something beyond experience, the fact that one cannot compare it with such a something, does not detract from this kind of knowledge - it is either viable or it is not. Indeed, as a constructivist, I tend to go one step further: Since we have access only to experience and cannot get outside the experiential field, there is no way one could show that one’s experiences are the effects of causes that lie outside the experiential world.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321011671463751757862":^°°Ӻ,"text":"Scientific knowledge, then, does not and could not yield a picture of the “real” world; it provides more or less reliable ways of dealing with experience. Hence it may be viable, but it can make no claim to “Truth”, if “Truth” is to be understood as a correspondence to the ontologically real world. On the other hand, this way of looking at knowledge, be it scientific or other, makes it immune against the sceptics’ perennial argument. Since this constructivist notion of knowledge does not claim to provide a picture of something beyond experience, the fact that one cannot compare it with such a something, does not detract from this kind of knowledge - it is either viable or it is not. Indeed, as a constructivist, I tend to go one step further: Since we have access only to experience and cannot get outside the experiential field, there is no way one could show that one’s experiences are the effects of causes that lie outside the experiential world.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1563971465552°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Yd8rs5pexe","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ","startOffset":2478,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ","endOffset":2639°Ӻ,"quote":"Constructivism, thus, does not deny the “existence” of Others, it merely holds that insofar as we know these Others, they are models that we ourselves construct.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321011671463751757862":^°°Ӻ,"text":"Constructivism, thus, does not deny the “existence” of Others, it merely holds that insofar as we know these Others, they are models that we ourselves construct.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1563971639261°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Zxfq0fzy4h","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ","endOffset":2478°Ӻ,"quote":"It is obvious that the construction of a viability of which I can say with some justification that it seems to reach beyond my own field of experience into that of Others, must play an important part in the stabilization and solidification of my experiential reality. In fact, it helps to create that highest level of which we then believe that it is shared by Others and, therefore “more real” than anything experienced only by ourselves.\nThis kind of corroboration, one might think, is much more easily and much more generally achieved by linguistic communication. From the constructivist point of view, however, the notion of “sharing” as a result of a linguistic exchange turns out to be the result of the very same kind of imputation we have discussed above. This brief summary is not the place to expand on the constructivist approach to language and communication.Ӷ4Ӻ All I want to say here is that, in spite of the fact that it often feels as though the meaning of words and sentences were conveyed to us by the sounds of speech or the signs on a printed page, it is easy to show that meanings do not travel through space and must under all circumstances be constructed in the heads of the language users. If we then ask, what these meanings could be made of, we find that the only raw material available is the stock of experiential records the individual language user has so far accumulated. There is no doubt that these subjective meanings get modified, honed, and adapted throughout the course of social interaction. But this adaptation does not and cannot change the fact that the material of which these meanings consist can be taken only from the individual language user’s subjective experience. (Note that, in this respect, social adaptation is analogous to biological adaptation: it can do no more than bring out, recombine, or thwart what is already in the organism – it cannot instill new elements.)\n\nIt may be useful to repeat that constructivism does not deny reality, nor does it deny that the living organism interacts with an environment; but it does deny that the human knower can come to know reality in the ontological sense. The reason for this denial is simply that the human knower’s interactions with the ontic world may reveal to some extent what the human knower can do – the space in which the human knower can move –, but they cannot reveal the nature of the constraints within which the human knower’s movements are confined.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321011671463751757862":^°°,^"jQuery321011671463751757862":^°°,^"jQuery321011671463751757862":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563971675410°
Annotationen:Knowing without Metaphysics: Aspects of the Radical Constructivist Position/C6dunbmxwf +
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"C6dunbmxwf","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ8Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ8Ӻ","endOffset":391°Ӻ,"quote":"Just as language arises and becomes a relatively stable system through the continual interaction of the individuals that use it, so a great many of the conceptual schemes that individuals construct are reinforced through their application in social interaction. This is a subtle, complicated issue and I shall try to explicate it with an example that may seem absurdly simple.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321000601467717208870052":^°°,^"jQuery321000601467717208870052":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563973242836°
Annotationen:Knowing without Metaphysics: Aspects of the Radical Constructivist Position/Cakas2wfvu +
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Cakas2wfvu","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ11Ӻ","startOffset":571,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ11Ӻ","endOffset":728°Ӻ,"quote":"This, of course, is the reason why the best teachers have always paid more attention to the sources of mistakes than to the how of students’ correct answers.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321000601467717208870052":^°°Ӻ,"text":"This, of course, is the reason why the best teachers have always paid more attention to the sources of mistakes than to the how of students’ correct answers.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1563973408197°
Annotationen:Knowing without Metaphysics: Aspects of the Radical Constructivist Position/D2w37m80w4 +
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"D2w37m80w4","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ2Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ2Ӻ","endOffset":126°Ӻ,"quote":"One of the standard objections to constructivism, particularly radical constructivism, runs somewhat like this:","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321000601467717208870052":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563972778648°
Annotationen:Knowing without Metaphysics: Aspects of the Radical Constructivist Position/Dyrz1j64po +
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Dyrz1j64po","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ11Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ11Ӻ","endOffset":571°Ӻ,"quote":"To return to education, the constructivist teacher will not be primarily interested in observable results, but rather in what students think they are doing and why they believe that their way of operating will lead to the solution of the problem at hand. The rationale of this shift of focus is simple: if one wants to generate understanding, the reasons why a student operates in a certain way are far more indicative of the student’s stage of conceptual development than whether or not these operations lead to a result that the teacher finds acceptable.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321000601467717208870052":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563973417534°
Annotationen:Knowing without Metaphysics: Aspects of the Radical Constructivist Position/Ednhfpv2nd +
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Ednhfpv2nd","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ7Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ7Ӻ","endOffset":1297°Ӻ,"quote":"Two aspects of this development are crucial for an understanding of Radical Constructivism. First, all this distinguishing and constructing of one’s ‘self’ takes place within the experiential field, uses elements of the sensory manifold, and is the result of the experiencer’s own actions. It does not require ‘things-in-themselves’ or ‘distinctions-in-themselves’ that could be ascribed to an objective, ontological reality. Second, what is isolated and established in this way, is the self one experiences – it is not that mysterious central entity that does the experiencing.\nThe constructs with which we have furnished our experiential world are those we have found useful or, at least, tenable. We use them in our schemes of action and in our conceptual operations; we drop or modify them if their rate of failure gets too high and we are able to construct more reliable ones; and we try to balance and coordinate them among each other. The more generally they are applicable, the less of them we need.\nAnd, given the variety of situations we come to distinguish, economy in the number of schemes becomes an important consideration.\n\nIn all this there is an aspect that was clearly stated by Piaget but was mostly ignored or misunderstood by both his followers and his critics.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321000601467717208870052":^°°,^"jQuery321000601467717208870052":^°°,^"jQuery321000601467717208870052":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563973095678°
Annotationen:Knowing without Metaphysics: Aspects of the Radical Constructivist Position/Faufc0pgou +
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Faufc0pgou","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ9Ӻ","startOffset":1412,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ9Ӻ","endOffset":1801°Ӻ,"quote":"That is to say, teachers must try to infer, from what they can observe, what the students’ concepts are and how they operate with them. Only on the basis of some such hypothesis can teachers devise ways and means to orient, direct, or modify the students’ mental operating. This is a context in which the constructivist approach and its analysis of conceptual development seemed promising.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321000601467717208870052":^°°Ӻ,"text":"That is to say, teachers must try to infer, from what they can observe, what the students’ concepts are and how they operate with them. Only on the basis of some such hypothesis can teachers devise ways and means to orient, direct, or modify the students’ mental operating. This is a context in which the constructivist approach and its analysis of conceptual development seemed promising.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1563973278582°
Annotationen:Knowing without Metaphysics: Aspects of the Radical Constructivist Position/Iaazznl88z +
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Iaazznl88z","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ","endOffset":1171°Ӻ,"quote":"Jean Piaget launched the notion of constructivism in developmental psychology. As I interpret his work (von Glasersfeld, 1982), it is the direct consequence of two fundamental insights: (I)that cognition produces conceptual structures by reflective abstraction from material that is available within the system and from the operations carried out with that material; and (2) that the function of cognition is adaptive in the biological senses (Piaget, 1937, 1967b). To realize the full power of the second, one must grasp the idea that adaptation is not an activity but the result of the elimination of the non-adapted, the non-functioning, and that, consequently, anything that manages to survive is ‘adapted’ to the environment in which it happens to find itself living. Once this is understood, one realizes that what matters is not to match the world, but to fit into it in spite of whatever obstacles or traps it might present. Applied to cognition, this means that ‘to know’ is not to possess ‘true representations’ of reality, but rather to possess ways and means of acting and thinking that allow one to attain the goals one happens to have chosen.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321000601467717208870052":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563972713818°
Annotationen:Knowing without Metaphysics: Aspects of the Radical Constructivist Position/Iksre2deu2 +
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Iksre2deu2","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ5Ӻ","startOffset":667,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ5Ӻ","endOffset":739°Ӻ,"quote":"Thus the inside becomes ‘self’, the outside the individual’s ‘universe’.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321000601467717208870052":^°°Ӻ,"text":"Thus the inside becomes ‘self’, the outside the individual’s ‘universe’.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1563972949179°
Annotationen:Knowing without Metaphysics: Aspects of the Radical Constructivist Position/J3len2nz3t +
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"J3len2nz3t","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ8Ӻ","startOffset":1293,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ8Ӻ","endOffset":1728°Ӻ,"quote":"If a prediction, made on the basis of imputing to another person a scheme of acting or thinking that one has found to be viable for oneself, turns out to be correct, then that scheme and the conceptual structures it involves achieve a level of experiential reality that cannot be reached without the social context. Indeed, this kind of ‘corroboration’ produces the only objectivity that is possible in the Radical Constructivist view.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321000601467717208870052":^°°Ӻ,"text":"If a prediction, made on the basis of imputing to another person a scheme of acting or thinking that one has found to be viable for oneself, turns out to be correct, then that scheme and the conceptual structures it involves achieve a level of experiential reality that cannot be reached without the social context. Indeed, this kind of ‘corroboration’ produces the only objectivity that is possible in the Radical Constructivist view.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1563973192220°
Annotationen:Knowing without Metaphysics: Aspects of the Radical Constructivist Position/Jjmpafqwjn +
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Jjmpafqwjn","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ8Ӻ","startOffset":1198,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ8Ӻ","endOffset":1293°Ӻ,"quote":"As I said, this is an absurdly simple example, but I have no hesitation about generalizing it:","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321000601467717208870052":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563973248943°
Annotationen:Knowing without Metaphysics: Aspects of the Radical Constructivist Position/Jkeg7bli5o +
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Jkeg7bli5o","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ6Ӻ","startOffset":826,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ6Ӻ","endOffset":959°Ӻ,"quote":"In other words, the self we come to know and the world we come to know are both assembled out of elements of our very own experience.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321000601467717208870052":^°°Ӻ,"text":"In other words, the self we come to know and the world we come to know are both assembled out of elements of our very own experience.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1563973007637°
Annotationen:Knowing without Metaphysics: Aspects of the Radical Constructivist Position/Mrkitz3yc3 +
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Mrkitz3yc3","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ10Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ10Ӻ","endOffset":149°Ӻ,"quote":"The models of another’s conceptual operating that one can build on the basis of observable behavior, thus, are and remain hypothetical;","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321000601467717208870052":^°°Ӻ,"text":"The models of another’s conceptual operating that one can build on the basis of observable behavior, thus, are and remain hypothetical;","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1563973332166°
Annotationen:Knowing without Metaphysics: Aspects of the Radical Constructivist Position/Ndtgbelwa5 +
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Ndtgbelwa5","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ10Ӻ","startOffset":150,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ10Ӻ","endOffset":691°Ӻ,"quote":"and what, one might ask, is the use of such models if they are linked to the reality of the child’s thinking, not by hard facts, but by inferences that may be countermanded at any moment? The constructivist answer is simple and perhaps disconcerting: the experiential world we live in (including other persons) is always a collection of such conjectural models based on one’s own interpretation of what one sees, hears, and ‘understands’. Linguistic communication is no exception to this rule. There, too, one deals with fit, not with match.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321000601467717208870052":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563973375747°
Annotationen:Knowing without Metaphysics: Aspects of the Radical Constructivist Position/Oczp7q8gfi +
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Oczp7q8gfi","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ","startOffset":1171,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ","endOffset":1342°Ӻ,"quote":"To know, thus, is not to have ‘correct pictures’ but, viable procedures or, as Maturana said (1988: 53), ‘to operate adequately in an individual or cooperative situation’.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321000601467717208870052":^°°Ӻ,"text":"To know, thus, is not to have ‘correct pictures’ but, viable procedures or, as Maturana said (1988: 53), ‘to operate adequately in an individual or cooperative situation’.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1563972691111°
Annotationen:Knowing without Metaphysics: Aspects of the Radical Constructivist Position/Roj6vedf4k +
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Roj6vedf4k","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ3Ӻ","startOffset":396,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ3Ӻ","endOffset":643°Ӻ,"quote":"I claim that we cannot even imagine what the word ‘to exist’ might mean in an ontological context, because we cannot conceive of ‘being’ without the notions of space and time, and these two notions are among the first of our conceptual constructs.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321000601467717208870052":^°°Ӻ,"text":"I claim that we cannot even imagine what the word ‘to exist’ might mean in an ontological context, because we cannot conceive of ‘being’ without the notions of space and time, and these two notions are among the first of our conceptual constructs.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1563972802613°
Annotationen:Knowing without Metaphysics: Aspects of the Radical Constructivist Position/Rr6ajt0u6w +
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Rr6ajt0u6w","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ7Ӻ","startOffset":1297,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ7Ӻ","endOffset":1777°Ӻ,"quote":"The experiential environment in which an individual’s constructs and schemes must prove viable is always a social environment as well as a physical one. Though one’s concepts, one’s ways of operating, and one’s knowledge cannot be constructed by any other subject than oneself, it is their viability, their adequate functioning in one’s physical and social environment, that furnishes the key to the solidification of the individual’s experiential reality (von Glasersfeld, 1985).","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321000601467717208870052":^°°Ӻ,"text":"The experiential environment in which an individual’s constructs and schemes must prove viable is always a social environment as well as a physical one. Though one’s concepts, one’s ways of operating, and one’s knowledge cannot be constructed by any other subject than oneself, it is their viability, their adequate functioning in one’s physical and social environment, that furnishes the key to the solidification of the individual’s experiential reality (von Glasersfeld, 1985).","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1563973079650°
Annotationen:Knowing without Metaphysics: Aspects of the Radical Constructivist Position/Tea8dgxe5c +
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Tea8dgxe5c","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ3Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ3Ӻ","endOffset":396°Ӻ,"quote":"I, too, arrived at this conclusion, albeit by a path that was quite different from his: I started from the sceptics, he from biology. The crucial point is that we do not make claims of knowing what exists ‘in itself’, that is, without an observer or experiencer. I, for one, am talking about what we know or can know. And as far as our knowledge (not God’s knowledge) is concerned,","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321000601467717208870052":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563972812431°
Annotationen:Knowing without Metaphysics: Aspects of the Radical Constructivist Position/Tgr4tpc6ol +
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Tgr4tpc6ol","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ","startOffset":1314,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ","endOffset":1982°Ӻ,"quote":"Concepts, therefore, have no iconic or representational connection with anything that might ‘exist’ outside the cognizing system; and the raw material out of which concepts are composed or coordinated cannot be known to have any such connection either. To call the basic elements of our cognitive conceptual constructions ‘distinctions’ is, I think, the least misleading way of speaking about them. From the distinguisher’s point of view, what is actually distinguished depends not on what might be there before the activity of distinguishing is carried out, but on what the organism is able to distinguish and chooses to distinguish in the given experiential context.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321000601467717208870052":^°°Ӻ,"text":"Concepts, therefore, have no iconic or representational connection with anything that might ‘exist’ outside the cognizing system; and the raw material out of which concepts are composed or coordinated cannot be known to have any such connection either. To call the basic elements of our cognitive conceptual constructions ‘distinctions’ is, I think, the least misleading way of speaking about them. From the distinguisher’s point of view, what is actually distinguished depends not on what might be there before the activity of distinguishing is carried out, but on what the organism is able to distinguish and chooses to distinguish in the given experiential context.","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1563972867206°
Annotationen:Knowing without Metaphysics: Aspects of the Radical Constructivist Position/Tipqfppga9 +
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Tipqfppga9","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ2Ӻ","startOffset":997,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ2Ӻ","endOffset":1218°Ӻ,"quote":"I am in agreement with Maturana when he says: ‘an observer has no operational basis to make any statements or claim about objects, entities or relations as if they existed independently of what he or she does’ (1988: 30).","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321000601467717208870052":^°°Ӻ,"text":"I am in agreement with Maturana when he says: ‘an observer has no operational basis to make any statements or claim about objects, entities or relations as if they existed independently of what he or she does’ (1988: 30).","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1563972732754°
Annotationen:Knowing without Metaphysics: Aspects of the Radical Constructivist Position/Tujb4l2u48 +
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Tujb4l2u48","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ8Ӻ/pӶ1Ӻ","startOffset":0,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ8Ӻ/pӶ1Ӻ","endOffset":805°Ӻ,"quote":"Assume you have made an appointment with a friend to meet in a certain place on a certain day. When the day comes, a lot of snow has fallen during the preceding night. There is a shorter and a longer way to drive to the arranged place. You know that the longer way is the quicker when there is snow on the roads. You know this from your own experience in your subjective physical environment. But now you use it in your social environment by predicting that your friend will come by that route. If your prediction turns out to be correct and, especially, if your friend confirms that he chose the longer way for the reason that you had in mind, your reasoning will be greatly reinforced and the elements that were involved in it will seem more like an objective reality that is independent of both of you.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321000601467717208870052":^°°,^"jQuery321000601467717208870052":^°°,^"jQuery321000601467717208870052":^°°Ӻ,"text":"Assume you have made an appointment with a friend to meet in a certain place on a certain day. When the day comes, a lot of snow has fallen during the preceding night. There is a shorter and a longer way to drive to the arranged place. You know that the longer way is the quicker when there is snow on the roads. You know this from your own experience in your subjective physical environment. But now you use it in your social environment by predicting that your friend will come by that route. If your prediction turns out to be correct and, especially, if your friend confirms that he chose the longer way for the reason that you had in mind, your reasoning will be greatly reinforced and the elements that were involved in it will seem more like an objective reality that is independent of both of you. ","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Beispiel3","data_creacio":1563973235667°
Annotationen:Knowing without Metaphysics: Aspects of the Radical Constructivist Position/U6b3jonz63 +
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"U6b3jonz63","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ2Ӻ","startOffset":126,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ2Ӻ","endOffset":334°Ӻ,"quote":"‘there’s a book in front of you on the table; you know it’s a book, I know it’s a book, and anyone who looks at it would recognize it as a book – why do you keep telling us that the book is not really there?’","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321000601467717208870052":^°°Ӻ,"text":"‘there’s a book in front of you on the table; you know it’s a book, I know it’s a book, and anyone who looks at it would recognize it as a book – why do you keep telling us that the book is not really there?’","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Beispiel3","data_creacio":1563972770564°
Annotationen:Knowing without Metaphysics: Aspects of the Radical Constructivist Position/Ubaxm0s76d +
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Ubaxm0s76d","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ10Ӻ","startOffset":692,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ10Ӻ","endOffset":939°Ӻ,"quote":"Language does not transport pieces of one person’s reality into another’s – it merely prods and prompts the other to build up conceptual structures which, to this other, seem compatible with the words and actions the speaker or writer has used.Ӷ8Ӻ","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321000601467717208870052":^°°Ӻ,"text":"Language does not transport pieces of one person’s reality into another’s – it merely prods and prompts the other to build up conceptual structures which, to this other, seem compatible with the words and actions the speaker or writer has used","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1563973365284°
Annotationen:Knowing without Metaphysics: Aspects of the Radical Constructivist Position/Ufdin5i7zl +
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Ufdin5i7zl","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ6Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ6Ӻ","endOffset":826°Ӻ,"quote":"This first distinction, as I have frequently said, is analogous to the one the artist makes with the first few lines on a sheet of paper, lines that determine what is going to be ‘figure’ and what ‘ground’. For the point of view I have adopted, the most important thing about that distinction is not what is being distinguished, but that the artist makes the distinction within the sheet, the canvas, or whatever he happens to be drawing on. Both figure and ground are parts of one and the same sheet. This is the feature traditional epistemology has tended to obscure: the distinction between the self and its environment is made, and can only be made, within an observer’s field of experience and does not concern the distinction between the observing subject and an ‘objective’ world to be observed or known.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321000601467717208870052":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563973048665°
Annotationen:Knowing without Metaphysics: Aspects of the Radical Constructivist Position/Y33o6xwniq +
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Y33o6xwniq","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ9Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ9Ӻ","endOffset":1412°Ӻ,"quote":"Some educators and researchers in education have come to the conclusion that, as a foundation for their activities, they must develop some theoretical ideas as to how children build up their picture of the world they experience. They believe that unless they have a model of the student’s concepts and conceptual operations, there is no effective way of teaching. In other words, they have begun to think in terms not only of cognitive but also of developmental psychology. this is a far cry from the still widespread behavioristic orientation that focuses exclusively on training and disregards learning.\nAs long as the educator’s objective was the generation of more or less specific behaviors in the student, the educator saw no need to ask what, if anything, might be going on in the student’s head. Whenever the student could be got to ‘emit’ the desired behaviors in the situations with which they had been associated, the instructional process was deemed successful. The student did not have to see why the particular actions led to a result that was considered ‘correct’, nor did the educator have to worry about how the student achieved it, what mattered was the ‘performance’, that is, that he or she was able to produce such a result.\n\nIf, in contrast, the objective is to lead the children or students to some form of understanding, the teacher must have some notion of how they think.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321000601467717208870052":^°°,^"jQuery321000601467717208870052":^°°,^"jQuery321000601467717208870052":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563973298416°
Annotationen:Knowing without Metaphysics: Aspects of the Radical Constructivist Position/Y6engcxhsb +
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Y6engcxhsb","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ5Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ5Ӻ","endOffset":667°Ӻ,"quote":"Near the end of his book La construction du réel chez l’enfant (1937), Piaget uses a simple drawing to illustrate his approach to the question of how cognitive development begins. The drawing consists essentially of a small circle, framed hy a much larger concentric one. It shows what Spencer Brown (1969), thirty years later, would call ‘the first distinction’, and it is, in Spencer Brown’s terms, as yet ‘unmarked’. That is to say, no characteristics have been ascribed to the distinguished areas, one inside, the other outside, the framed circle. Descriptions follow, as the child makes further distinctions that separate it from an ‘environment’.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321000601467717208870052":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563972973709°
Annotationen:Knowing without Metaphysics: Aspects of the Radical Constructivist Position/Yg5uqza56s +
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Yg5uqza56s","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ2Ӻ","startOffset":335,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ2Ӻ","endOffset":996°Ӻ,"quote":"To give anything like a complete answer to this question, one would have to explicate at least all the key ideas of the constructivist approach I have listed above, and one would have to reiterate that constructivism deals with knowing not with being. There is no simple argument to justify the distinction between experiential reality and ontological reality. One might reply that life would be a lot easier if no one claimed to know the world as it is, and that the constructivist orientation is one way to avoid such claims. As a constructivist, I have never said (nor would I ever say) that there is no ontic world, but I keep saying that we cannot know it.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321000601467717208870052":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563972784952°
Annotationen:Knowing without Metaphysics: Aspects of the Radical Constructivist Position/Ypsskbyxof +
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Ypsskbyxof","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/pӶ1Ӻ","endOffset":788°Ӻ,"quote":"To perceive or recognize a book (or anything else) is to find something in one’s experiential field that fits one’s concept of ‘book’. It does not mean that a ‘real’ or ‘ontic’ object that is a book has to be there before one has seen it as a book. All it means is that in some part of our present experiential field there is the kind of raw material which, if coordinated in a particular way, is sufficiently close to what our concept of book demands, so that we accept it as an instantiation of that concept.\nTwo points have to be made clear in this context because they, too have led to misunderstandings. First, ‘concepts’, in my view, are not like picture postcards against which one matches experiential material rather, they are pathways of action or operation and they can either be completed with the experiential material at hand, or they cannot, and the rigor with which that completion is required and carried out always depends on the particular setting in which the activity takes place. The second point concerns what I have called the ‘raw material’. The ‘stuff’ on this lowest level of analysis is not something that lies about in an objective environment. It is no more, but also no less, than the totality of basic sensory elements or distinctions our system is able to generate.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321000601467717208870052":^°°,^"jQuery321000601467717208870052":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563972899574°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"A3gehx9eom","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ6Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ6Ӻ","endOffset":1650°Ӻ,"quote":"The sceptics’ arguments are indeed irrefutable and there would seem to be little merit in burying one’s head in the sand and attempting to carry on as though they had never been formulated. There have, of course, been philosophers who, following a line of thought that was already quite fully developed by Plato, attempted to circumvent the problem by discrediting sensory experience altogether and saying that the real reality was not to be found on the other side of our sensory interface but rather in the core of our minds in a world of ideas. By considering everyday experience illusory, this school of thought promised to bring into focus an immutable world of eternal truths and values. Though it proved a fertile starting point for metaphysical speculation and religious belief systems, it did not and could not lead to a satisfactory theory of knowledge. Most of the sceptics’ arguments were equally applicable also to the mysterious process of becoming aware of ideas that were supposed to be slumbering in one’s mind; and since even the most extreme idealism could not quite eliminate the realm of sensory experience, there still remained the problem of tying the world of perfect ideas to the world of imperfect experience. Moreover, if idealism was carried to its logical extreme, it led to solipsism, the doctrine according to which there exists nothing but the subject’s own ideas. Although this doctrine has an attractive intrinsic elegance, it would be difficult to accept, because every one of us knows only too well that the world he or she has to live in is usually not quite the world he or she would like to have.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321060537121305394982":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1568367617967°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Ab8fb8wrqd","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ10Ӻ","startOffset":1294,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ10Ӻ","endOffset":1863°Ӻ,"quote":"From the radical constructivist perspective, “knowledge” fits reality in much the same way that a key fits a lock that it is able to open. The fit describes a capacity of the key, not a property of the lock. When we face a novel problem, we are in much the same position as the burglar who wishes to enter a house. The “key” with which he successfully opens the door might be a paper clip, a bobby pin, a credit card, or a skillfully crafted skeleton key. All that matters is that it fits within the constraints of the particular lock and allows the burglar to get in.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery32103157500187237122":^°°,^"jQuery32103157500187237122":^°°Ӻ,"text":"From the radical constructivist perspective, “knowledge” fits reality in much the same way that a key fits a lock that it is able to open. The fit describes a capacity of the key, not a property of the lock. When we face a novel problem, we are in much the same position as the burglar who wishes to enter a house. The “key” with which he successfully opens the door might be a paper clip, a bobby pin, a credit card, or a skillfully crafted skeleton key. All that matters is that it fits within the constraints of the particular lock and allows the burglar to get in. ","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Beispiel3","data_creacio":1568377519489°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Brsz38tooa","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ","startOffset":623,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ","endOffset":694°Ӻ,"quote":"Knowledge, thus, is usually assumed to be knowledge of the environment.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery3210037671983364997112":^°°Ӻ,"text":"Knowledge, thus, is usually assumed to be knowledge of the environment.","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1567684125894°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Cczrua7jsz","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ5Ӻ","startOffset":130,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ5Ӻ","endOffset":481°Ӻ,"quote":"Pyrrho and his followers had successfully argued that if, say, an apple appears to have a certain color and a certain smell, feels smooth and tastes sweet to us, this cannot give us the knowledge that a real apple possesses these properties, because we have no way of examining the apple other than by seeing, smelling, tasting, and feeling it again.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery3210196925396241426132":^°°Ӻ,"text":"Pyrrho and his followers had successfully argued that if, say, an apple appears to have a certain color and a certain smell, feels smooth and tastes sweet to us, this cannot give us the knowledge that a real apple possesses these properties, because we have no way of examining the apple other than by seeing, smelling, tasting, and feeling it again. ","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Beispiel3","data_creacio":1567689081715°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"E6sb79yrl9","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ17Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ17Ӻ","endOffset":869°Ӻ,"quote":"The experiential world becomes structured and organized by means of such regularities and invariants as the experiencer is able to abstract from his or her experience. It consists of whatever viable concepts, relationships, and models enable the experiencer to attain his goals. And in this context it is important also to remember that an experiencer’s goals are necessarily conceived and formulated in terms that are part and parcel of that experiencer’s own construction. \nDuring the process of segmenting, relating, and structuring his or her experiential field, the experiencer develops models for “things” isolated in what is categorized as “environment” and models for this environment as a coherent “world.” But that is not all. A model will also be developed for whatever he or she has come to categorize, respectively, as “himself” or “herself.”","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321046925796264564092":^°°,^"jQuery321046925796264564092":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1568978149337°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Ejwmc719nv","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ14Ӻ","startOffset":739,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ14Ӻ","endOffset":975°Ӻ,"quote":"Because survival and the perpetuation of the genome are the central mechanisms of the theory, biologists need not, and indeed must not, attribute any goal or purpose to the process of evolution which the theory purports to describe.Ӷ10Ӻ","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery3210077961469739075362":^°°Ӻ,"text":"Because survival and the perpetuation of the genome are the central mechanisms of the theory, biologists need not, and indeed must not, attribute any goal or purpose to the process of evolution which the theory purports to describe.Ӷ10Ӻ","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1568975604041°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Eku7n1qmir","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ9Ӻ","startOffset":623,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ9Ӻ","endOffset":993°Ӻ,"quote":"For constructivists, then, studying the genesis of the concepts that allow us to organize our experience is not a sin but a necessity; and the way in which that genesis will be studied should undoubtedly be part of psychology, even if the psychological establishment, with the exception of Piaget and his Geneva School, has hitherto not done very much in that direction.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321026268161170739812":^°°Ӻ,"text":"For constructivists, then, studying the genesis of the concepts that allow us to organize our experience is not a sin but a necessity; and the way in which that genesis will be studied should undoubtedly be part of psychology, even if the psychological establishment, with the exception of Piaget and his Geneva School, has hitherto not done very much in that direction.","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1568376994294°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Eyxb6dpfzt","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ","startOffset":1258,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ","endOffset":1424°Ӻ,"quote":"It is analogous to asking, say, what the magnification of a telescope might be if nothing that is seen through the telescope can be seen or measured in any other way.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery32100075549691730021352":^°°Ӻ,"text":"It is analogous to asking, say, what the magnification of a telescope might be if nothing that is seen through the telescope can be seen or measured in any other way.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Beispiel3","data_creacio":1567688205478°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"F0mf2bs6rs","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ6Ӻ","startOffset":1650,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ6Ӻ","endOffset":1777°Ӻ,"quote":"In other words, we cannot help realizing that our experience is subject to constraints that are altogether outside our control.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321060537121305394982":^°°Ӻ,"text":"In other words, we cannot help realizing that our experience is subject to constraints that are altogether outside our control.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1568367602215°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"F3mnmypox8","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ5Ӻ","startOffset":481,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ5Ӻ","endOffset":597°Ӻ,"quote":"Hence, if our senses distort what they are supposed to “convey,” we have no way of ever discovering that distortion.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery3210196925396241426132":^°°Ӻ,"text":"Hence, if our senses distort what they are supposed to “convey,” we have no way of ever discovering that distortion.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1567689063424°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Ffnlniggh4","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ18Ӻ","startOffset":2304,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ18Ӻ","endOffset":2748°Ӻ,"quote":"The radical constructivist, therefore, must not be thought to do away with “objectivity”—he merely defines it in a different way. Any concept, event, theory, or model will be considered “objective” if and only if it has proved to be viable not only in one’s own organization of the experiential world, but also in the particular area of conceptual organization that proves to be a viable model for the experiential worlds one imputes to others.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery32105113989221366732":^°°,^"jQuery32105113989221366732":^°°Ӻ,"text":"The radical constructivist, therefore, must not be thought to do away with “objectivity”—he merely defines it in a different way. Any concept, event, theory, or model will be considered “objective” if and only if it has proved to be viable not only in one’s own organization of the experiential world, but also in the particular area of conceptual organization that proves to be a viable model for the experiential worlds one imputes to others.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1568978325281°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Gbzvf7r4p3","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ18Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ18Ӻ","endOffset":2303°Ӻ,"quote":"At a certain stage, then, in the organization of the experiential field, certain items that have been isolated in the ordinary way (i.e. in the way in which the other furniture of the experiential world has been constructed) manifest insubordination and effectively refute whatever categorization is tentatively assigned to them. This may occur for the first time when the child who has managed to catch a bright beetle, puts it with a collection of marbles and discovers a moment later that the marbles are still where they were but the beetle is busily crawling away. The child may then abstract the “ability to move by itself” and attribute it as an inherent property to certain items which can be managed successfully only if some such property is expected of them. In other words, the child will have to construct a rather more sophisticated model for beetles than for marbles. \nAs the organization of the experiential field continues and expands, perceptual capabilities, emotional reactions, intentions, and, eventually, the very faculty of experiencing in the same sense in which the subject himself or herself experiences, are attributed to a select category of experiential items. These items, finally, are seen as Others who not only experience as one does oneself, but also organize their experiential field and try, for better or for worse, to predict and to manage their own experiential futures. From this perspective, the corroboration of one’s own experience by an Other takes on a somewhat different but no less important significance. Since the Other is as much the subject’s own construction as everything else in the experiential field, the fact that an Other confirms some item one has oneself experienced, does not confer an independent “existence” on that item, but it does show that the particular construct one has used is viable, not only in the structure and organization of one’s own experience, but also as an interpretation of the Other’s way of constructing his or her experience. There arises, thus, a second level of assessing the viability of constructs: their viability in one’s interpretation of Others’ construction of reality. This second-order viability supplements the viability of regularities and rules one has coordinated in one’s “environment.”","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery32105113989221366732":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1568978265962°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Hi9cganhtq","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ13Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ13Ӻ","endOffset":38°Ӻ,"quote":"But success is relative.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321028000069703916032":^°°,^"jQuery321028000069703916032":^°°Ӻ,"text":"But success is relative. ","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1568975021099°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Hmjh45r7cw","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ3Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ3Ӻ","endOffset":771°Ӻ,"quote":"The problem springs, not from a mistaken answer to an epistemological question, but from the question itself. To be more precise, it springs from a tacit assumption that is inherent in the question. This assumption is so natural and has come to seem so inevitable that it is difficult to become aware of and to see it clearly for what it is. This is largely due to the fact that one is not likely to ask questions about the nature of knowledge unless one already possesses something that one considers knowledge. That is to say, one begins at a point where one has tacitly accepted the traditional notion that “knowledge” is knowledge of something else, knowledge that corresponds to, depicts, or represents something that was there before it became known.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321053713397331886552":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1567687610960°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"I1w826em8p","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ","startOffset":905,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ","endOffset":1257°Ӻ,"quote":"Pyrrho, a little later, formulated the argument that quickly became and still remains the cornerstone of all kinds of philosophical scepticism. How, he asked, could we ever tell whether or not the pictures our senses “convey” are accurate and true, if the only way they can be checked is again through our senses? The question is, indeed, unanswerable.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery32100075549691730021352":^°°Ӻ,"text":"Pyrrho, a little later, formulated the argument that quickly became and still remains the cornerstone of all kinds of philosophical scepticism. How, he asked, could we ever tell whether or not the pictures our senses “convey” are accurate and true, if the only way they can be checked is again through our senses? The question is, indeed, unanswerable.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1567688171091°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"J3jyk1t96t","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ11Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ11Ӻ","endOffset":235°Ӻ,"quote":"Given this central notion of fit, the radical constructivist theory of knowledge is essentially a cybernetic theory in that it is based on the principle of adaptation to constraints rather than the principle of causation.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321084520804379751982":^°°Ӻ,"text":"Given this central notion of fit, the radical constructivist theory of knowledge is essentially a cybernetic theory in that it is based on the principle of adaptation to constraints rather than the principle of causation.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1568973407903°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Jdh09uhq7q","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ7Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ7Ӻ","endOffset":1891°Ӻ,"quote":"If, as the sceptics have always claimed, there is no way of deriving knowledge of the real world from experience, it would seem reasonable to suggest that we relinquish the traditional scenario of the discoverer. In contemporary terms we might say that one should think of ontic reality as a “black box,” i.e., an entity whose internal structure and functioning are forever inaccessible to the human knower. That does not mean that one should follow the idealist and deny its existence. It merely means that one accepts the fact that one cannot discover what Reality might look like when it is not experienced by a human subject who conceptualizes it within a subjective framework of space and time. \nTo take this view does not mean that epistemological investigation has come to an end. It merely means that we shall adopt a different cognitive scenario and a different conception of what it is “to know.” In fact, the realization that the world of our experience is always and irrevocably the world as we see it, constitutes a new beginning. It immediately raises the question why and, above all, how it comes about that we search for and also seem to find structure in our experiential world. On closer examination this question splits into two. First, we shall have to ask on what grounds and by what means we manage to construct the world of everyday life, the world with which we cope for better or for worse, the world in which and about which we communicate with others. Such an investigation is, in fact, no less and no more than a continuation of what Kant called his “transcendental project.” However, in proceeding with it, we shall deviate in one important way. To accept Kant’s view that neither sensory nor any other kind of experience can furnish reliable knowledge of things-inthemselves does not oblige one also to accept his notion of an immutable a priori.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321096357867698300562":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1568368315462°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Jnnmb88m6n","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ9Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ9Ӻ","endOffset":623°Ӻ,"quote":"We constantly make useful distinctions between what we consider “real” and what “illusory,” and between “fact” and “fiction.” If that “reality” and those “facts” are not impressed on us from the outside, we ourselves must have a way of generating them. The question, therefore, turns into: How does the human mind construct its reality? An answer to that question, then, must involve the workings of the human mind. That is to say, it must be found in an area that belongs to psychology and, specifically, to the area that investigates the operations of the mind and the generation of conceptual structures.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321026268161170739812":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1568377020050°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Jvbbgirs3v","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ7Ӻ","startOffset":1891,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ7Ӻ","endOffset":2282°Ӻ,"quote":"That notion, in fact, is no less an ontological assumption than the realist’s assumption that the experiencer-independent ontic reality should have a knowable structure. The character of experiential reality will have to be explained, not as a result of preordained ways of experiencing (Kant’s Anschauungsformen), but as a result of the experiencer’s coordinatory and conceptual operations.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321096357867698300562":^°°Ӻ,"text":"That notion, in fact, is no less an ontological assumption than the realist’s assumption that the experiencer-independent ontic reality should have a knowable structure. The character of experiential reality will have to be explained, not as a result of preordained ways of experiencing (Kant’s Anschauungsformen), but as a result of the experiencer’s coordinatory and conceptual operations.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1568368305295°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Ktc0nqsv6v","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ","endOffset":623°Ӻ,"quote":"In the philosophical tradition of the Western World, it is held that knowledge forms a sharp contrast to belief, opinion, hypothesis, and illusion. What is called “knowledge,” is supposed to be not only unquestionable but also independent of the knowing subject. Knowledge, therefore, is considered much more than know-how. It is intended to refer to a “true” picture of the world, of objects and events, and of the rules and laws that govern them. Though the human knower may include some knowledge of the knowing self, by far the greater part of it concerns the world in which that cognizing subject lives.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery3210037671983364997112":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1567684152561°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Lfb2ivc9y9","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ15Ӻ","startOffset":1908,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ15Ӻ","endOffset":2651°Ӻ,"quote":"What changes, in its various applications, is merely the type of goal. Because inductive knowledge is instrumental knowledge it does not have to, and indeed cannot, match any ontic reality in the sense that it corresponds to, depicts, or represents it iconically; but in order to be good knowledge, it must fit the reality in which we have gathered our past experience. The enormous conceptual difference resides in the fact that, in traditional epistemology, knowledge was supposed to convey or reflect something of the structure of the “real” world, whereas in the radical constructivist theory of knowledge, the term refers exclusively to the schemes of doing and thinking which the knower has constructed to organize and manage experience.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321035372966343038652":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1568976298240°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Ny31x2tjef","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ17Ӻ","startOffset":870,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ17Ӻ","endOffset":1006°Ӻ,"quote":"The self, thus, is an experiential entity to which the experiencer attributes a number of specific properties, abilities, and functions.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321046925796264564092":^°°Ӻ,"text":"The self, thus, is an experiential entity to which the experiencer attributes a number of specific properties, abilities, and functions.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1568978170312°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Pwm7rstw3n","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ13Ӻ","startOffset":39,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ13Ӻ","endOffset":441°Ӻ,"quote":"The more often a particular conceptual structure has led to satisfactory results, the more closely it comes to resemble what, in the traditional way of thinking, would be called experiential or, more precisely, inductive knowledge. The resemblance, however, is misleading. \nIn the traditional way of thinking, there is a sleight of hand that usually remains hidden even to the thinker him- or herself.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321028000069703916032":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1568975196435°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Qed6j4r3no","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/pӶ1Ӻ","endOffset":278°Ӻ,"quote":"On second thought, though, any such “truth” will need to be verified. To ascertain whether or not a statement is true in this particular “ontological” sense, we shall have to check it with something that is supposed to “exist” in a world apart from statements and experience. That is to say, it would be a question of comparing a statement, not with other statements or past experiences, but with states of affairs that are supposed to be the causes of what we experience, states of affairs that are supposed to be there, in themselves and for themselves in an ontic world, irrespective of anyone’s experience. \nThis comparison is a comparison that can never be made. Xenophanes, one of the earliest among the Pre-Socratics, had already become aware of that impossibility. “If a man succeeded to the full in saying what is completely true, he himself would nevertheless be unaware of it.”","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery32100075549691730021352":^°°,^"jQuery32100075549691730021352":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1567688184009°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Qgvba1vpvs","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ15Ӻ","startOffset":1819,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ15Ӻ","endOffset":1907°Ӻ,"quote":"This viability is, in principle, the same notion as in the case of the lock and the key.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321035372966343038652":^°°Ӻ,"text":"This viability is, in principle, the same notion as in the case of the lock and the key.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Beispiel3","data_creacio":1568976037951°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Qrotb6l2mk","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ16Ӻ","startOffset":201,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ16Ӻ","endOffset":4171°Ӻ,"quote":"An account of these levels has been provided elsewhere.Ӷ12Ӻ Here we shall give merely a brief outline with the help of a simple, prosaic example. \nThe conception of reality we are adopting is based on the notion of repeatability. This is a commonplace notion which, it seems, is used everywhere in conceptual construction. Imagine you are looking out the window, see a dark patch on the lawn and, the next time you look, the dark patch is gone. You now wonder what it was. If there is no ready explanation, you may conclude that it was nothing but a figment of your visual system which is showing fatigue, and you therefore dismiss the experience as illusory, which is to say, you eliminate it from the sequence of experiences that you consider “real.” If, however, the dark patch is seen a second time, you will work much harder to find an explanation for it that would allow you to consider it real. If you are unable to account for it, but you see the patch every time you look out the window, you will be considerably disturbed, because this now means either that there are inexplicable entities visiting your lawn or—no less worrying—that your perceptual system has developed a serious malfunction. In both cases, the dark patch would have acquired a higher degree of reality than it had after you had seen it only once. \nAs a next step, you might walk out and inspect the place where you have seen or are seeing the dark patch. This could, in fact, lead to a “confirmation” of the experience in another sensory mode. If, now, there is some other perceptual discrimination that you can coordinate with the visual discrimination of the patch— the feel of sticky wetness as you put your hand on the ground, a tactual resistance, or even a smell or sound—the experience of the dark patch will make something like a quantum jump with regard to the “reality” you would assign to it. (It is true, of course, that psychologists have found cases of illusion that involve more than one sensory mode, but they are rather rare and you would be extremely reluctant to accept the idea that it is you who is having such a multimodal illusion.) \nObviously, repetition would again play an important part on this second level. If the compound experience were recurrent, so that you have it again after shorter or longer intervals, you would at once assign to it a higher degree of reality than if you had had it only once. \nThe situation may then develop in two different ways. On the one hand, you may be able to draw an analogy and coordinate the experience of the dark patch with some of the rules and regularities that you have (inductively) abstracted in some area of past experience. That is to say, you may be able to construct an “explanation” for the dark patch that conforms to, or is in harmony with, explanations you have successfully used on other occasions and in other circumstances. \nIn that case, the explanation you have just produced would be registered as an hypothesis about the appearance of dark patches on your lawn. If you happened to be of a scientific bent of mind, you would then cease to doubt the reliability of your visual sense and you would begin to search for ways and means of “testing” your hypothesis. \n\nOn the other hand, you may decide to call your spouse or someone else, ask them to look at the particular place on the lawn, and see what happens. If, in the past, they have usually corroborated your perceptions but now do not corroborate your experience of the dark patch, you will have some difficulty in maintaining its reality. (Of course, there is always the possibility of attributing supernatural powers to yourself, but few people are willing to take that rather awesome step with so little provocation.) If, however, your witness concurs and corroborates that a dark patch can be discriminated from the rest of the lawn, then the experience makes yet another jump with regard to its reality: you now are quite sure that it “exists.”","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321055199315526674482":^°°,^"jQuery321055199315526674482":^°°,^"jQuery321055199315526674482":^°°Ӻ,"text":"An account of these levels has been provided elsewhere.Ӷ12Ӻ Here we shall give merely a brief outline with the help of a simple, prosaic example.\n\nThe conception of reality we are adopting is based on the notion of repeatability. This is a commonplace notion which, it seems, is used everywhere in conceptual construction. Imagine you are looking out the window, see a dark patch on the lawn and, the next time you look, the dark patch is gone. You now wonder what it was. If there is no ready explanation, you may conclude that it was nothing but a figment of your visual system which is showing fatigue, and you therefore dismiss the experience as illusory, which is to say, you eliminate it from the sequence of experiences that you consider “real.” If, however, the dark patch is seen a second time, you will work much harder to find an explanation for it that would allow you to consider it real. If you are unable to account for it, but you see the patch every time you look out the window, you will be considerably disturbed, because this now means either that there are inexplicable entities visiting your lawn or—no less worrying—that your perceptual system has developed a serious malfunction. In both cases, the dark patch would have acquired a higher degree of reality than it had after you had seen it only once. As a next step, you might walk out and inspect the place where you have seen or are seeing the dark patch. This could, in fact, lead to a “confirmation” of the experience in another sensory mode. If, now, there is some other perceptual discrimination that you can coordinate with the visual discrimination of the patch— the feel of sticky wetness as you put your hand on the ground, a tactual resistance, or even a smell or sound—the experience of the dark patch will make something like a quantum jump with regard to the “reality” you would assign to it. (It is true, of course, that psychologists have found cases of illusion that involve more than one sensory mode, but they are rather rare and you would be extremely reluctant to accept the idea that it is you who is having such a multimodal illusion.) Obviously, repetition would again play an important part on this second level. If the compound experience were recurrent, so that you have it again after shorter or longer intervals, you would at once assign to it a higher degree of reality than if you had had it only once. The situation may then develop in two different ways. On the one hand, you may be able to draw an analogy and coordinate the experience of the dark patch with some of the rules and regularities that you have (inductively) abstracted in some area of past experience. That is to say, you may be able to construct an “explanation” for the dark patch that conforms to, or is in harmony with, explanations you have successfully used on other occasions and in other circumstances. In that case, the explanation you have just produced would be registered as an hypothesis about the appearance of dark patches on your lawn. If you happened to be of a scientific bent of mind, you would then cease to doubt the reliability of your visual sense and you would begin to search for ways and means of “testing” your hypothesis.\nOn the other hand, you may decide to call your spouse or someone else, ask them to look at the particular place on the lawn, and see what happens. If, in the past, they have usually corroborated your perceptions but now do not corroborate your experience of the dark patch, you will have some difficulty in maintaining its reality. (Of course, there is always the possibility of attributing supernatural powers to yourself, but few people are willing to take that rather awesome step with so little provocation.) If, however, your witness concurs and corroborates that a dark patch can be discriminated from the rest of the lawn, then the experience makes yet another jump with regard to its reality: you now are quite sure that it “exists.”","category":"Beispiel3","data_creacio":1568977226326°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Sjxnqjl80z","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ11Ӻ","startOffset":236,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ11Ӻ","endOffset":1775°Ӻ,"quote":"Ӷ6Ӻ Adaptation to constraints is, of course, a well-known concept in Darwinian and neo-Darwinian theories of evolution. In that context, ‘adaptation’ is the result of the selective effects the environment has on populations of organisms who manifest a certain degree of variability. The criterion of selection is of stark simplicity: an organism either has what it takes to survive in the given environment, or it hasn’t. To say of an organism that it is “adapted to” or “fits” its environment, therefore, is to say that it possesses biological and behavioral features that have enabled it to survive (and procreate) up to now, in spite of whatever constraints (i.e., obstacles, inimical conditions, disasters, etc.) its environment has imposed on it. From the fact that organisms are viable, however, we cannot derive a description of the environment because, whatever the viable organisms are like, they constitute only one out of an unlimited number of possibilities that would also be viable. \nIn the evolutionary context, the viability of organisms is tantamount to survival, and survival is a binary affair.Ӷ7Ӻ An organism either survives or it doesn’t. It has no way of changing its genetic make-up when some genetic feature turns out to be counterproductive. There is no learning in evolution, only natural selection against variations that impede viability. Errors are fatal and they cannot be corrected in individual organisms. They can be “corrected” only in the population of the species by eliminating the deficient organisms.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321084520804379751982":^°°,^"jQuery321084520804379751982":^°°,^"jQuery321084520804379751982":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1568973421749°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Surd3zzg2q","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ15Ӻ/pӶ1Ӻ","startOffset":384,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ15Ӻ/pӶ1Ӻ","endOffset":742°Ӻ,"quote":"Hence we conclude that the conceptual structures that constitute inductive knowledge are instrumental. And instrumental knowledge is good knowledge as long as it “works,” which is to say, as long as it helps us to attain the goals we want to attain. If it ceases to do so, we discard it, because it no longer fits our purpose and, thus, is not viable.Ӷ11Ӻ","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321035372966343038652":^°°,^"jQuery321035372966343038652":^°°,^"jQuery321035372966343038652":^°°Ӻ,"text":" Hence we conclude that the conceptual structures that constitute inductive knowledge are instrumental. And instrumental knowledge is good knowledge as long as it “works,” which is to say, as long as it helps us to attain the goals we want to attain. If it ceases to do so, we discard it, because it no longer fits our purpose and, thus, is not viable.Ӷ11Ӻ ","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1568976250879°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"T61nx065uj","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ2Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ2Ӻ","endOffset":1801°Ӻ,"quote":"All these skills were the result of observation, of trying things out and inductively retaining what seemed likely to work again. Among these observations there were, of course, many that concerned other people. Once you had come too close to a fire, felt the burning heat, and had your skin blistered, you could observe others make the same mistake—and you could conclude that they, too, had the same burning sensation as you had experienced. Thus, it seemed perfectly clear that the fire was the cause of those burns, regardless of whether they were your burns or another’s. The fire had to be there, a thing that existed in itself and for itself, and anyone coming too close would get burned. Reality was not only very tangible, but it was also pretty reliable. It caused effects in the experiencer, and the effects were sufficiently regular to warrant making predictions. The fact that many of these predictions turned out to be correct made reality all the more real and gave it stability. \nSmall wonder, then, that when questions began to be asked about how one experiences, how one perceives, and how one comes to know, it seemed quite natural to answer them by saying that it had to be Reality that caused what one experiences, what one perceives, and what one comes to know. The scenario of knowing quite naturally took shape as a scenario that has the cognizing subject come into the world as a discoverer, as a subject that must find out what the things of the Real World are like, how they work, and in what way they can be managed. To see was to receive visual impressions, to hear was to receive sounds, and to acquire knowledge was to put all one’s perceptions together and to discover how the things that caused them were actually related and what exactly they were like.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321041123179155916622":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1567687451587°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"U9eyvg69g4","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ12Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ12Ӻ","endOffset":597°Ӻ,"quote":"When the concept of viability is transferred to the cognitive domain, the situation changes. Here, errors are not always immediately fatal for who makes them. The cognizing organism can, indeed, learn. It can embark on a line of action, realize that it does not lead where it was expected to lead, and either modify the action or abort it and try something else. The method of trial, error, and retention of successful solutions is a deliberate method within the cognitive domain, whereas in the biological domain of phylogeny it is at best a fanciful, metaphorical description.Ӷ8Ӻ","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321061696582656504072":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1568973787912°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Umj2wwlxyn","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ8Ӻ/pӶ1Ӻ","startOffset":976,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ8Ӻ","endOffset":1800°Ӻ,"quote":"“Knowledge” and the process of cognizing are therefore seen as inseparable. They reciprocally entail one another in the same way as drawing a “figure” entails categorizing the sheet of paper as “ground.” \n\nKnowledge, thus, becomes the product of an active, constructive mind.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery3210046333567783282572":^°°,^"jQuery3210046333567783282572":^°°Ӻ,"text":"“Knowledge” and the process of cognizing are therefore seen as inseparable. They reciprocally entail one another in the same way as drawing a “figure” entails categorizing the sheet of paper as “ground.”\nKnowledge, thus, becomes the product of an active, constructive mind.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1568368977497°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Uy3uq0r6si","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ5Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ5Ӻ","endOffset":130°Ӻ,"quote":"Kant, in fact, extended the sceptics’ argument beyond the area of sensory data to the very structure of experience.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery3210196925396241426132":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1567689098895°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Uyivvznp0t","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ5Ӻ","startOffset":598,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ5Ӻ","endOffset":1129°Ӻ,"quote":"Kant, however, pushed doubt much further. By suggesting that time and space are aspects of our human way of experiencing rather than properties of the ontic world, he cast doubt upon the very notion of thinghood. Thus, it is not only the real apple’s color, smell, smoothness, and taste that are uncertain, but we can no longer be sure that there exists a real unitary object, a “thing-in-itself,” that corresponds to the constellation of sensory properties which we isolate as an “apple” from the rest of our experiential field.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery3210196925396241426132":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1567689119233°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Vz9cv6boae","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ5Ӻ","startOffset":1129,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ5Ӻ","endOffset":1569°Ӻ,"quote":"The scenario, in which the knower is supposed to acquire “true” pictures or representations of the real world, is thus inherently unsatisfactory. If the knower can never be sure that the picture of the world which he or she distills from experience is unquestionably a correct representation of a world that exists as such, the knower is cast in the role of a discoverer who has no possible access to what he or she is expected to discover.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery3210196925396241426132":^°°Ӻ,"text":"The scenario, in which the knower is supposed to acquire “true” pictures or representations of the real world, is thus inherently unsatisfactory. If the knower can never be sure that the picture of the world which he or she distills from experience is unquestionably a correct representation of a world that exists as such, the knower is cast in the role of a discoverer who has no possible access to what he or she is expected to discover.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1567689138069°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Wlxe83d61p","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ10Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ10Ӻ/pӶ1Ӻ","endOffset":907°Ӻ,"quote":"We seem to be getting deeper and deeper into a paradox. On the one hand, we are saying, with the sceptics, that the reality we construct for ourselves cannot be considered a picture or iconic representation of an ontic world but, on the other hand, we are not admitting solipsism, although we do say that whatever “reality” we come to have must be our own construction. \nThe way out of this apparent paradox lies in the concept of viability, and the application of that concept is extremely simple, once we manage to get rid of the traditional interpretation of the word “to know.”Ӷ5Ӻ In our habitual way of thinking and speaking, “to know something” is intended to mean that one possesses a conceptual structure that matches some part or aspect of something that is considered ontologically real. From the constructivist perspective, this is an impossibility, and we therefore replace the notion of match with the notion of fit. It is one thing to believe that one has a conceptual structure that represents a part or an aspect of ontic reality iconically, which is to say, that all relevant differences between it and reality have been eliminated; and it is another thing to believe that one has a conceptual structure which will fit a certain type of experiential situation.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery32103157500187237122":^°°,^"jQuery32103157500187237122":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1568377536619°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"X3553l47nw","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ10Ӻ","startOffset":1863,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ10Ӻ","endOffset":2473°Ӻ,"quote":"Similarly, the problem-solver attempts to conceive a method that will successfully open a path to his or her goal. Any method that does this will serve as well as any other, and to the extent that the problem-solver is successful, his or her know-how is functionally adapted to the constraints of unknowable ontic reality. Note that considerations as to how well a method serves its purpose are secondary in that they require reflection on what has been done as well as the introduction of ulterior values, such as speed, economy, ease of execution, compatibility with the methods used for other problems, etc.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery32103157500187237122":^°°Ӻ,"text":"Similarly, the problem-solver attempts to conceive a method that will successfully open a path to his or her goal. Any method that does this will serve as well as any other, and to the extent that the problem-solver is successful, his or her know-how is functionally adapted to the constraints of unknowable ontic reality. Note that considerations as to how well a method serves its purpose are secondary in that they require reflection on what has been done as well as the introduction of ulterior values, such as speed, economy, ease of execution, compatibility with the methods used for other problems, etc.","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1568377553616°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"X7bfcmsiir","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ3Ӻ","startOffset":771,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ3Ӻ","endOffset":1148°Ӻ,"quote":"In other words, one takes for granted that what one has come to know had its own independent existence before one captured it by a cognizing effort. Given that perspective, it is indeed difficult to avoid asking just how well the knowledge one has acquired “corresponds to,” “depicts,” or “represents” what it is supposed to correspond to, depict, or represent, namely Reality.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321053713397331886552":^°°Ӻ,"text":"In other words, one takes for granted that what one has come to know had its own independent existence before one captured it by a cognizing effort. Given that perspective, it is indeed difficult to avoid asking just how well the knowledge one has acquired “corresponds to,” “depicts,” or “represents” what it is supposed to correspond to, depict, or represent, namely Reality.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1567687599329°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Y8edpp9u4p","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ2Ӻ","startOffset":1802,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ2Ӻ","endOffset":1978°Ӻ,"quote":"Knowledge, therefore, was knowledge of the things that caused one’s experiences, the things that were given, the data, and it could all be put together as a picture of Reality.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321041123179155916622":^°°Ӻ,"text":"Knowledge, therefore, was knowledge of the things that caused one’s experiences, the things that were given, the data, and it could all be put together as a picture of Reality.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1567687434498°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Yabi7ix5fk","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ13Ӻ","startOffset":441,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ13Ӻ","endOffset":1421°Ӻ,"quote":"It is the same trick that the statistician performs quite openly: when something has recurred a sufficient number of times, it is considered “significant”—which is to say, it is considered probable enough to be taken as a “fact.” The good statistician, of course, does not forget that it was he or she who decided the level of recurrence beyond which things were to be considered “significant.” Like the good modern physicist, he does not argue that, just because the sun has risen every morning for as long as we can remember or have records, we have the right to assume that it must continue to do so in the future. With David Hume, they know that there is no conceivable logical reason why the future should resemble the past. But, for practical reasons, we tend to assume that it will. If we did not make that assumption, we could not draw any inferences at all from past experience, and our attempts at predicting and controlling future experience could not even get started.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321028000069703916032":^°°Ӻ,"text":"It is the same trick that the statistician performs quite openly: when something has recurred a sufficient number of times, it is considered “significant”—which is to say, it is considered probable enough to be taken as a “fact.” The good statistician, of course, does not forget that it was he or she who decided the level of recurrence beyond which things were to be considered “significant.” Like the good modern physicist, he does not argue that, just because the sun has risen every morning for as long as we can remember or have records, we have the right to assume that it must continue to do so in the future. With David Hume, they know that there is no conceivable logical reason why the future should resemble the past. But, for practical reasons, we tend to assume that it will. If we did not make that assumption, we could not draw any inferences at all from past experience, and our attempts at predicting and controlling future experience could not even get started.","category":"Beispiel3","data_creacio":1568975172602°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Yl52hc16ek","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ8Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ8Ӻ/pӶ1Ӻ","endOffset":976°Ӻ,"quote":"The second question to be answered concerns the cognizing activity itself, how it produces what we call “knowledge” and what relation obtains between that knowledge and the black box of ontic reality. For though we relinquish the traditional requirement that knowledge must depict, correspond to, or represent the real world, we must nevertheless (if we want to avoid the absurdity of solipsism) establish that and why what we call “knowledge” cannot be an altogether unconstrained fiction but must in some way be related to reality. \nThe theory of knowledge that we have called Radical Constructivism attempts to provide an answer to both these questions. It does this by replacing the relation between the knower and the known. Traditional epistemology has always taken it as a matter of course that there is a knowable ontic world and that it is the knower’s task to get to know and to describe it.Ӷ4Ӻ The activity of “knowing,” thus, was always seen as the acquisition of something that was already there. Our theory, instead, focuses on the activity of “knowing” as a constructive activity whose results are not merely compilations of material which the knower passively receives through the senses or through some other experiential conduit, but rather coordinations of elements which originate, within the knower, as products of the knower’s own activities of generating and coordinating. Isolating elements in one’s experiential field and relating them to one another are mutually dependent activities.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery3210046333567783282572":^°°,^"jQuery3210046333567783282572":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1568368988663°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Yy3ckpwl6p","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ15Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ15Ӻ/pӶ1Ӻ","endOffset":383°Ӻ,"quote":"On the cognitive level, however, as we have suggested before, things may be said to “work” in contexts where survival (or procreation) are not directly involved or, perhaps, not involved at all. We do not have to think of extreme cases, such as suicides or drug addicts. Every one of us has inductively developed schemes of action that “work” in that they have brought us success in attaining goals, and some of these goals have had no conceivable connection with physical survival, procreation, or anything biological. But the expression “to work,” in the context of cognitive construction, has yet another subtle aspect. In most contexts, it would be decidedly odd, for someone who has learned that coming too close to the fire will blister the skin, to say “putting your hand on the burner works.” (One could, of course, think up a context in which that statement would make sense, but the context would have to establish that the statement is intended ironically or that, for some reason, burning your hand was, exceptionally, considered a desirable goal.) \nThe point is simply this: Induction, on the cognitive level, presupposes that we abstract regularities from past experience in order to attain desirable states and events and to avoid undesirable ones. In other words, to speak of induction implies values, in the sense that inductive inferences are made with the expectation that they provide tools for the pursuit of specific goals.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321035372966343038652":^°°,^"jQuery321035372966343038652":^°°,^"jQuery321035372966343038652":^°°,^"jQuery321035372966343038652":^°°,^"jQuery321035372966343038652":^°°,^"jQuery321035372966343038652":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1568976287375°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Z5oo5zzrj0","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ16Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ16Ӻ","endOffset":200°Ӻ,"quote":"First of all, it is important to realize that there are several levels of reality that differ largely in the material that is used to construct the items that are then considered “real.”","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321055199315526674482":^°°Ӻ,"text":"First of all, it is important to realize that there are several levels of reality that differ largely in the material that is used to construct the items that are then considered “real.”","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1568977184432°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Zom8a1siz5","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ12Ӻ","startOffset":598,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ12Ӻ","endOffset":778°Ӻ,"quote":"In the cognitive realm of conceptual structures, then, the concept of viability applies to those structures which, in the cognizing organism’s past experience, have led to success.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery3210123064015462960312":^°°Ӻ,"text":"In the cognitive realm of conceptual structures, then, the concept of viability applies to those structures which, in the cognizing organism’s past experience, have led to success.","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1568973822424°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Zoptl909rk","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ14Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ14Ӻ","endOffset":738°Ӻ,"quote":"The phrase “that which works” must be interpreted somewhat differently, depending on the realm in which it is used. In the cognitive realm, something will be said to “work” when it does what is expected of it in the context of attaining a goal. This is a delicate and often debated point. Given the longstanding objection, both in psychology and biology, against the notions of goal or purpose, we want to be very explicit about it. \nIn the realm of phylogeny, to “work” means no more than to be viable, to manage to survive and to procreate, and the repetition of that which works is built into the conceptual system that constitutes the theory of evolution. What does not work, or is not viable, is necessarily eliminated.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery3210077961469739075362":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1568975583624°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"D1x9ql8m5c","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ","endOffset":859°Ӻ,"quote":"In everyday language the difference between the terms learning and adaptation is sometimes blurred because both refer to a fundamental requirement. If we were not adapted to our environment, we would be unable to survive, and if we could not learn, we would die of our mistakes. For the biologist, however, there is an important difference: adaptation refers to the biological make-up, the genetically determined potential with which we are born; and learning is the process that allows us to build up skills in acting and thinking as a result of our own experience.\nAnother way of bringing out this difference would be to explain that biological adaptation is the result of accidental mutations in the genes that determine possibilities of development, whereas learning can be engaged in deliberately in view of goals that we or others choose.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321059935472725277642":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563972015498°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Gnftdj3fe7","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ","startOffset":859,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ","endOffset":1055°Ӻ,"quote":"This means that learning is an activity that we, consciously or unconsciously, have to carry out ourselves. In contrast, the basic meaning of adaptation is not an activity of organisms or species.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321059935472725277642":^°°Ӻ,"text":"This means that learning is an activity that we, consciously or unconsciously, have to carry out ourselves. In contrast, the basic meaning of adaptation is not an activity of organisms or species.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1563972006816°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Gygyaa02u3","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ5Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ5Ӻ","endOffset":918°Ӻ,"quote":"In this context, I can merely point out that the three-part model of the action scheme remains a powerful analytical tool in the domain of reflection, but there, obviously, the perceptual situation is replaced by a conceptual one, and the activity by a mental operation; and perturbations are no longer caused by unexpected perceptual results but by relational surprises, such as the breach of an expected regularity or an operational result that is incompatible with other conceptual structures, \nThe basic principle of the constructivist theory is that cognitive organisms act and operate in order to create and maintain their equilibrium in the face of perturbations generated by conflicts or unexpected novelties arising either from their pursuit of goals in a constraining environment or from the incompatibility of conceptual structures with a more or less established organisation of experience.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321059935472725277642":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563972271339°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Hc3ugdvv23","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ3Ӻ","startOffset":1203,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ3Ӻ","endOffset":1578°Ӻ,"quote":"Eventually this perspective led him to the conclusion that the function of intelligence was not, as traditional epistemology held, to provide cognitive organisms with ‘true’ representations of an objective environment. Rather, he began to see cognition as generator of intelligent tools that enable organisms to construct a relative fit with the world as they experience it.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321059935472725277642":^°°Ӻ,"text":" Eventually this perspective led him to the conclusion that the function of intelligence was not, as traditional epistemology held, to provide cognitive organisms with ‘true’ representations of an objective environment. Rather, he began to see cognition as generator of intelligent tools that enable organisms to construct a relative fit with the world as they experience it.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1563972158334°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Lm8p20ek75","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ2Ӻ","startOffset":805,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ2Ӻ","endOffset":887°Ӻ,"quote":"the adaptedness of living organisms can be credited only to accidental variations.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321059935472725277642":^°°Ӻ,"text":"the adaptedness of living organisms can be credited only to accidental variations.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1563972062785°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Pnp5r6eksa","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/pӶ1Ӻ","endOffset":387°Ӻ,"quote":"As a biologist, Piaget was well acquainted with the notion of reflex and he investigated the phenomenon in his children. Since infants manifest some such ‘fixed action patterns’ as soon as they are born, they must be considered the result of genetic determination rather than learning. Whereas most developmental psychologists seemed satisfied with that explanation, Piaget focused on the fact that this genetic determination was likely to be the result of natural selection. In other words, he considered that these action patterns arose through accidental mutations and spread, because they, rather than others, had consequences that were conducive to survival. He therefore saw reflexes not as they are usually depicted in textbooks, viz.:\nSTIMULUS → ACTIVITY (RESPONSE)\nbut as composed of three rather than two parts. The third part was the result of the activity that was crucial for the perpetuation of the reflex. On the basis of the organism’s past experience, this result could be expected, and thus open the way to cognitive applications:\n\t1 \t \t2 \t \t3 \n\tPERCEIVED → \tACTIVITY → \tBENEFICIAL or SITUATION EXPECTED RESULT","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321059935472725277642":^°°,^"jQuery321059935472725277642":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563972189848°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Se46y0thy7","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ3Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ3Ӻ","endOffset":1203°Ӻ,"quote":"Piaget started out as a biologist and began to investigate what he considered to be manifestations of ‘intelligence’ (using the term in a wider sense than is usual). It began with his early discovery that mollusks of the same species were able to produce offspring that developed different and appropriately shaped shells, if they were transplanted from still to fast-flowing water or vice versa. It was a change of physical structure that did not involve a change in the mollusks’ genetic make-up. He saw this as the effect of environmental constraints that foreclosed all but the viable developmental possibilities of the organism. Hence it was a form of adaptation that was closer to learning — the natural selection that produced it did not eliminate other potential developmental pathways in the genome, but only in the individual mollusks in question. Their offspring, if placed in another environment, could develop different shells which, relative to the new constraints, were again adapted.\nSeen in this way, the concept of adaptation could be incorporated in a theory of learning. In my view, this is the major contribution Jean Piaget has made to our understanding of cognition.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321059935472725277642":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563972165202°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Twposv16hf","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ","startOffset":1145,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ","endOffset":1481°Ӻ,"quote":"This addition was legitimate because, although reflexive action patterns are ‘wired in’ and remain fixed for a certain time, they can eventually be modified or even dismantled by the organism’s experience. Adults, for instance, no longer manifest some of the reflexes that helped them to find the mother’s nipple when they were infants.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321059935472725277642":^°°Ӻ,"text":"This addition was legitimate because, although reflexive action patterns are ‘wired in’ and remain fixed for a certain time, they can eventually be modified or even dismantled by the organism’s experience. Adults, for instance, no longer manifest some of the reflexes that helped them to find the mother’s nipple when they were infants.","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1563972183183°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"V69skpy6zw","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ5Ӻ","startOffset":918,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ5Ӻ","endOffset":1092°Ӻ,"quote":"The urge to know thus becomes the urge to fit, on the sensorimotor level as well as in the conceptual domain, and learning and adaptation are seen as complementary phenomena.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321059935472725277642":^°°Ӻ,"text":"The urge to know thus becomes the urge to fit, on the sensorimotor level as well as in the conceptual domain, and learning and adaptation are seen as complementary phenomena.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1563972244520°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Xddohpk5i1","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ2Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ2Ӻ","endOffset":805°Ӻ,"quote":"What further tends to mislead about the biological meaning of the term adaptation, is its definition as the outcome of a process called natural selection. This seems to relate the process to the deliberate, goal-directed selecting that is done, for example, by breeders of dogs or horses. Natural selection, in contrast, happens quite aimlessly as the result of changes in the environment which simply wipe out all those that do not have the characteristics necessary for survival. In this context one should emphasize the fact that the characteristics that enable an organism to survive a given environmental change, have to be present in the organism before that change occurs; and since the theory of evolution holds that modifications of the genetic make-up must be caused by mutations,","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321059935472725277642":^°°,^"jQuery321059935472725277642":^°°,^"jQuery321059935472725277642":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563972072052°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Ew8lrouq9z","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ1Ӻ","endOffset":2125°Ӻ,"quote":"However, you can also raise your sweetest voice and call: “Darling, would you come into the garden!” That, too, is interaction, but doesn’t always work. If it is successful, this may be due to one of three things: \n1)\ta history of calls and reinforcements that has conditioned Sue to go to daddy at the stimulus “Darling”, much as a well-trained spaniel comes when called; \n2)\ta history of interactions that has led Sue to parse the sequence “come into the garden!” as one of many possible combinations of signals which, in particular contexts, require a specific motor action; \n3)\ta history of interactions that has led Sue to interpret the utterance as an expression of something that’s in daddy’s head; something that must itself be interpreted through re-presentation of past experiences with daddy’s expression of wishes, with his tendency to say “garden” when he intends “vegetable garden”, with the path to it, etc., etc.) and must be evaluated in relation to other possibilities, and which, in this instance, leads to the decision to do as requested. \nThe way I see it (because that’s the way I have made it), this illustrates four types of interaction. Only the last one has the components I require to use the word “language” in the sense I want. \nPushing or pulling others, dragging or carrying them, are no doubt social interactions. As such, they may be modified by all sorts of conventions; but, even if they are, I would not call them “language”. \nThe conditioned response springs from a link the experiencer has established, a link between a sensory experience and a motor action. Even if the stimulus is a “word”, because the stimulator (and others) consider it thus, I would not call the interaction “language”. \nThe complex utterance that requires parsing in a context, is “linguistic” in just that respect. Yet, because the outcome of the parsing is still no more than a fixed connection to a sensory-motor pattern, a trigger for a specific way of acting, I would still not call it “language” in the full sense of the term. \nOnly in the last instance, where the utterance calls forth re-presentations, the replay of past experiences in the receiver’s mind, only in that case is the interaction truly different from all other forms of social interaction, and the difference is an exclusive characteristic of “language”.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321044352141459634112":^°°,^"jQuery321044352141459634112":^°°,^"jQuery321044352141459634112":^°°,^"jQuery321044352141459634112":^°°,^"jQuery321044352141459634112":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1569608161565°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Hhavmsx0r7","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ2Ӻ","startOffset":1136,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ2Ӻ","endOffset":1268°Ӻ,"quote":"Understanding language, therefore, requires continuous checking and evaluation of the re-presentations the other’s words call forth.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery32104318470631195952":^°°Ӻ,"text":"Understanding language, therefore, requires continuous checking and evaluation of the re-presentations the other’s words call forth.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1571039347368°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Jbpgj2zryt","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ2Ӻ/pӶ1Ӻ","startOffset":0,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ2Ӻ/pӶ1Ӻ","endOffset":822°Ӻ,"quote":"My utterance (written, in this case) is not connected to a specific chain of action of mine nor with some manifest behavior I might expect of you. I used the sentence as an example to show the effect of language on the flow of your re-presentations. \nThe real power of language is this power to call forth re-presentations of past experience or what the language users have abstracted from it; and what one abstracts from one’s experience is “knowledge”. \nThis way of seeing “language” does several things. It makes clear that “to understand” is to be able to fit (more or less satisfactorily) re-presented abstracts of one’s own experience to another’s words that one hears or reads. If the composition one ends up with seems contradictory, one feels one has not understood, or that the other is in some way out of order.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery32106422897215043282":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1569606980660°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Le9j8tpmur","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ2Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ2Ӻ/pӶ1Ӻ","endOffset":0°Ӻ,"quote":"Another illustration. Assume I say: “There’s a picture in the Louvre in Paris, a picture of a woman who is famous for her smile.” You have immediate access to a past experience of yours, or several maybe, and you can visualize the Mona Lisa (even if, for the moment, you cannot recall her name).","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery32104318470631195952":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Beispiel3","data_creacio":1571039331339°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Y3a08kbbyn","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ","startOffset":2355,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ","endOffset":2789°Ӻ,"quote":"The crucial difference, for me, is this: Whatever is called forth by the piece of language, the items it refers to, are items that have been abstracted from experience. They may, but need not, have any immediate link with sensory-motor experience that is going on, nor any link with present or future manifest behavior. Yet, what is said or heard is not without effect. But the effect is on the language users’ acts of representation.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery32104318470631195952":^°°,^"jQuery32104318470631195952":^°°,^"jQuery32104318470631195952":^°°Ӻ,"text":"The crucial difference, for me, is this: Whatever is called forth by the piece of language, the items it refers to, are items that have been abstracted from experience. They may, but need not, have any immediate link with sensory-motor experience that is going on, nor any link with present or future manifest behavior. Yet, what is said or heard is not without effect. But the effect is on the language users’ acts of representation.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1571039291171°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Bztlk6sifh","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ","startOffset":640,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ","endOffset":1264°Ӻ,"quote":"In time, we have learned to shut doors so that the givers of the command are satisfied—which is to say, we learned to adapt our interpretation of their signal to their expectations. But that learning was neither intuitive nor instantaneous—it required a certain number of trials, errors, and the gradual isolation of viable ways of responding. We would not expect a child that grew up in igloos or tents to have acquired either the skills to comply with that command or, indeed, the meaning of the phrase. Though this example is extremely simple, the principle it illustrates is fundamental to all linguistic communication:","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321018273734226842632":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1569944170332°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"C2rcic5sas","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ7Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ7Ӻ","endOffset":329°Ӻ,"quote":"To interpret an utterance or a written piece of language (be it a message or a text) requires something more than the construction of its conventional linguistic meaning. In fact, to interpret an utterance requires the insertion of whatever we consider its conventional meaning into a specific experiential context.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery3210236070319546843652":^°°Ӻ,"text":"To interpret an utterance or a written piece of language (be it a message or a text) requires something more than the construction of its conventional linguistic meaning. In fact, to interpret an utterance requires the insertion of whatever we consider its conventional meaning into a specific experiential context.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1569946218329°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"F1qdus5sab","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ7Ӻ","startOffset":330,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ7Ӻ","endOffset":1345°Ӻ,"quote":"In the case of a prosaic message, this is relatively easy to see. If a subject, S, let us say Susan, leaves her office, walks out on the parking lot and picks up a sheet of paper on which someone has written, “Thursday, November 11th, 3 p.m.,” she will have no difficulty in understanding the words or symbols, but she will probably be quite unable to interpret them. They clearly specify a particular hour on a particular day, but since she has no clue as to why that point in time is being specified, she has no way of relating that conventional meaning to the framework of her own experiential world. Had she found the sheet fixed to her car in a way that she would consider deliberate, she would search her mind for a possible sender and a plausible interpretation in terms of an experiential event or situation to which the message might refer. But the sheet of paper came to Susan from nowhere and without a pragmatic context. Hence, though she knows what it says, she cannot tell what it is intended to mean.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery3210236070319546843652":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Beispiel3","data_creacio":1569946249050°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"F30e9rvdp0","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ6Ӻ","startOffset":109,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ6Ӻ","endOffset":1578°Ӻ,"quote":"Indeed, a demonstration of compatibility cannot even be turned into a proof of likeness. We believe to have understood a piece of language whenever our understanding of it remains viable in the face of further linguistic or interactional experience. Only a subsequent statement or speaker’s reaction to our response can indicate to us that an interpretation we have made is not compatible with the speaker’s intended meaning. \nThe more or less permanent meanings each one of us has established for words and phrases in the course of acquiring a given language is the direct result of our individual histories of interaction with speakers of that language. Insofar as our reactions to others’ recurrent use of a word have turned out to be and remain compatible with those speakers’ apparent intentions, we believe to have understood what they intended; and insofar as we have abstracted a conceptual structure from repeated uses of a word, that conceptual structure is, for the time being, what we think of as its meaning. The more frequent the situations in which our meaning of a word seems to fit a speaker’s intention, the more we will tend to believe that it is the conventional meaning—and almost inevitably we forget that fit, no matter how often it might recur, does not demonstrate that our understandings actually match a speaker’s intended meaning. There is always a next occurrence of the word that may show us that our understanding was a misunderstanding.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321077853930025981882":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1569944813573°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Fcz3ufxxay","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ9Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ9Ӻ","endOffset":2147°Ӻ,"quote":"What, however, if Susan had found a novel? Literary writings usually do not indicate their purpose. They may, of course, have some didactic effect, but that effect is, as a rule, considered beside the point in a discussion of literary interpretation. If the novel Susan finds, for instance, describes at some point someone walking in Paris, and Susan gathers from that description how one gets from the Pont Saint Michel to the Place Vendôme, that kind of learning would surely be deemed irrelevant to the interpretation, let alone evaluation, of the novel as a piece of literature. Yet, it is far less clear whether the fact that a novel suggests to the reader a way of dealing with a fiercely jealous spouse is to be deemed altogether irrelevant from a literary point of view. \nIs it the author’s didactic intention that matters? One can hardly doubt that Ibsen wrote Ghosts to teach the public a lesson. And while there may be little, if anything, to warrant the assumption that Goethe published The Sorrows of Young Werther in order to warn young men against falling in love with married women, it would be difficult to maintain that, when writing Faust, he did not intend to impart some kind of wisdom. However, if we accept any such supposition—and it might seem quite reasonable to do so—it immediately raises a serious question: How on earth can a reader be sure that the wise conclusions he or she draws from the text do, in fact, constitute the wisdom the author intended to impart? That question, needless to say, must be raised not only with regard to wisdom but with regard to any deeper meaning or content that is presumed to lie beyond the conventional linguistic meaning of words and phrases. \n\nAny proficient speaker of the language in which a literary text is composed can be expected to understand the words and phrases the text contains.Ӷ7Ӻ But that kind of understanding (which, in principle, is equivalent to what Susan could bring to the found message) is not the kind literary scholars have in mind when they discuss whether or not a certain interpretation of a text is justifiable, plausible, or correct.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery3210099467207144480762":^°°,^"jQuery3210099467207144480762":^°°,^"jQuery3210099467207144480762":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1571042992691°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Go8jrkwg07","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ10Ӻ","startOffset":2691,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ10Ӻ","endOffset":2796°Ӻ,"quote":"The viability of an interpretation, after all, can be assessed only from the interpreter’s point of view.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321075176789112379732":^°°Ӻ,"text":"The viability of an interpretation, after all, can be assessed only from the interpreter’s point of view.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1571044546127°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Hhh1jxh2ki","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ5Ӻ","startOffset":358,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ5Ӻ","endOffset":1114°Ӻ,"quote":"If I am told that a mermaid is a creature with a woman’s head and torso and the tail of a fish, I need not have met such a creature in actual experience to understand the word, but I must be somewhat familiar with what is called “woman” and what is called “fish” to construct a meaning for the novel word. And if I am not told that the fish’s tail replaces the woman’s legs, I may construct a notion that is more like a fish-tailed biped than like the intended traditional mermaid. My deviant notion could then be corrected only by further interaction, i.e., by getting into situations where my conception of a creature with legs as well as a fish’s tail comes into explicit conflict with a picture or with what speakers of the language say about mermaids.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321026931368378065982":^°°Ӻ,"text":"If I am told that a mermaid is a creature with a woman’s head and torso and the tail of a fish, I need not have met such a creature in actual experience to understand the word, but I must be somewhat familiar with what is called “woman” and what is called “fish” to construct a meaning for the novel word. And if I am not told that the fish’s tail replaces the woman’s legs, I may construct a notion that is more like a fish-tailed biped than like the intended traditional mermaid. My deviant notion could then be corrected only by further interaction, i.e., by getting into situations where my conception of a creature with legs as well as a fish’s tail comes into explicit conflict with a picture or with what speakers of the language say about mermaids.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Beispiel3","data_creacio":1569944406418°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Iw7yv8nvtb","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ2Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ2Ӻ","endOffset":239°Ӻ,"quote":"Any prediction based on the interpretation of an experiential item that is taken as a sign pointing to a not yet experienced item, will be judged according to whether it is or is not confirmed by actual subsequent experience.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery3210136114328583544222":^°°Ӻ,"text":"Any prediction based on the interpretation of an experiential item that is taken as a sign pointing to a not yet experienced item, will be judged according to whether it is or is not confirmed by actual subsequent experience.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1569873026636°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Ji0byrkvz3","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ","startOffset":1264,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ","endOffset":1373°Ӻ,"quote":"a linguistic message, under any circumstances, can be interpreted only in terms of the receiver’s experience.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321018273734226842632":^°°Ӻ,"text":"a linguistic message, under any circumstances, can be interpreted only in terms of the receiver’s experience.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1569944074124°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"K7bu7i5fc9","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ","startOffset":177,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ","endOffset":491°Ӻ,"quote":"The relation of fit is essentially a negative one: within the frame of reference, or grid, used to establish the fit, no point occupied by the one item is occupied by the other; a match, on the other hand, is a match precisely to the extent to which the two items share points within the chosen frame of reference.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321038160899199776932":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1569872357977°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Kwdz4yohqd","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ9Ӻ","startOffset":2147,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ9Ӻ","endOffset":2743°Ӻ,"quote":"I submit that whatever one might choose as the measure of justification, plausibility, or correctness when one is concerned with literary interpretation lies beyond the realm of linguistic competence (which is taken for granted as prerequisite) and involves relations one establishes between the conceptual structures called forth by the text and the conceptual network that constitutes one’s own experiential world. These relations, by definition, are subjective, in the sense that they cannot connect anything but the reader’s own conceptual structures with the reader’s own experiential world.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery3210099467207144480762":^°°Ӻ,"text":"I submit that whatever one might choose as the measure of justification, plausibility, or correctness when one is concerned with literary interpretation lies beyond the realm of linguistic competence (which is taken for granted as prerequisite) and involves relations one establishes between the conceptual structures called forth by the text and the conceptual network that constitutes one’s own experiential world. These relations, by definition, are subjective, in the sense that they cannot connect anything but the reader’s own conceptual structures with the reader’s own experiential world.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1571042980837°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Mj3dyoro8x","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ3Ӻ","startOffset":1140,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ3Ӻ","endOffset":1498°Ӻ,"quote":"Natural language is learned in interactive situations, that is, in situations where speaker and hearer are reciprocally part of each other’s experiential field and where, therefore, there is some feedback regarding the hearer’s interpretation of the speaker’s utterances, as well as feedback regarding the speaker’s expectations about the hearer’s responses.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321019878319629637022":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1569873587125°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"P2mzyf0zj1","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ5Ӻ","startOffset":174,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ5Ӻ","endOffset":358°Ӻ,"quote":"That also fits the theory of interpretation. In order to understand a piece of language I hear or read, I must build up its meaning out of conceptual elements which I already possess.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321026931368378065982":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1569944396865°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"P7byiq9npw","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ8Ӻ","startOffset":1000,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ8Ӻ","endOffset":1218°Ӻ,"quote":"and again, any such adaptation and abstraction must be based on the individual construction of patterns of concepts and actions which turn out to be compatible with actions and reactions of other users of the language.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery3210118853039845978952":^°°Ӻ,"text":"and again, any such adaptation and abstraction must be based on the individual construction of patterns of concepts and actions which turn out to be compatible with actions and reactions of other users of the language.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1569946403585°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"R7567lqgvd","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ3Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ3Ӻ","endOffset":1140°Ӻ,"quote":"On the simplest technical level, Shannon’s Theory of CommunicationӶ4Ӻ makes it clear that meaning does not travel from one communicator to the another. What travels is a signal. A signal, of whatever physical form it might be, has for the originator or source the specific meaning he or she has encoded in it. A receiver can decode a signal, provided two conditions are satisfied: he must (1) recognize it as a signal, and (2) have a specific meaning associated with it. On the technical level, moreover, it is usually taken for granted that the sender’s and the receiver’s codes are the same. \nIn the realm of telegraphy, Morse code, and other technical signaling systems, the “identity” of the sender’s and the receiver’s codes can be assured by simple means outside the communication system (e.g., distributing a priori a list of permitted signals plus their fixed meanings). In non-technical, i.e., not deliberately designed communication systems, the assumption of any such identity of codes and meanings becomes precarious.Ӷ5Ӻ\n\nWhen the communication system is a natural language, we tend to ignore that precariousness.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321019878319629637022":^°°,^"jQuery321019878319629637022":^°°,^"jQuery321019878319629637022":^°°,^"jQuery321019878319629637022":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1569873608091°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Rpj5obhbh1","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ6Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ6Ӻ","endOffset":109°Ӻ,"quote":"It is important to realize that the compatibility of two items does not entail their identity.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321077853930025981882":^°°Ӻ,"text":"It is important to realize that the compatibility of two items does not entail their identity. ","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1569944803749°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"T2bkra3vhl","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ11Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ11Ӻ","endOffset":1368°Ӻ,"quote":"This state of affairs is analogous to the state of affairs in science. No matter how well a theory works within the framework of scientific goals—explanation, prediction, and control—it can never be shown to describe or match an ontological reality, nor can it be shown to be the only possible interpretation of the scientists’ experiences. There is, however, an important difference. The scientist has, as a rule, a fairly well-defined framework of goals. He searches for explanations with a view to predicting and controlling experiential situations. In that respect, the mantic (though he may have used a different methodology) is related to the scientist, because he, too, interpreted signs and omens in terms of experiential situations. Both he and the scientist are judged according to how well some experience that is subsequent to their pronouncement can be fitted into their prediction. \nBy contrast, literary interpreters, though they might be said to explain the texts they interpret, cannot refer to subsequent experience as testing ground of their interpretations’ viability. While the scientist’s interpretation of experience or experiments and the mantics interpretation of omens are, in the last analysis, always an instrument for the management of further experience, the interpretation of a literary text seems to be an end in itself.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321078197923346423662":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1571045374421°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"U2h79k3m8t","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ5Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ5Ӻ","endOffset":173°Ӻ,"quote":"At the beginning of the 18th century, Giambattista Vico formulated a constructivist epistemology by saying that humans can know only what humans can construct.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321026931368378065982":^°°,^"jQuery321026931368378065982":^°°,^"jQuery321026931368378065982":^°°Ӻ,"text":"At the beginning of the 18th century, Giambattista Vico formulated a constructivist epistemology by saying that humans can know only what humans can construct.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1569944445266°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Uxqiv7jqtz","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ","startOffset":217,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ","endOffset":639°Ӻ,"quote":"“Shut the door!,” for instance, must be responded to with a sequence of motor acts which has to be learned in a succession of experiential situations, a succession which provides occasion for the acquisition of simple but nevertheless specific skills and, above all, occasion to experience what has to be avoided. Most of us have been scolded at one time or another for slamming a door when the instruction was to shut it.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321018273734226842632":^°°Ӻ,"text":"“Shut the door!,” for instance, must be responded to with a sequence of motor acts which has to be learned in a succession of experiential situations, a succession which provides occasion for the acquisition of simple but nevertheless specific skills and, above all, occasion to experience what has to be avoided. Most of us have been scolded at one time or another for slamming a door when the instruction was to shut it.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Beispiel3","data_creacio":1569944154774°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Vbc2v9q2n8","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ8Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ8Ӻ","endOffset":999°Ӻ,"quote":"In the case of a text, the situation is more complicated. First of all, there are different kinds of text. If Susan, instead of a single sheet, had picked up and read a primer or a school book of any discipline, she might have acquired some new conceptual structures because the text would have led her to combine conventional meanings she already possessed in ways she had not previously combined them. In that sense, the text could modify and expand the range of her over-all conceptual network. The mechanism of such conceptual expansion is, in principle, similar to the mechanism that enables us to acquire a concept of mermaid without having to construct it from direct experience. There is nothing obscure about it. It derives from the fact that the language user comes to establish “conventional rules of language.” As in the case of word meanings, the speakers of a given language come to obey and abstract rules of word combination as a result of their continuous interaction;","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery3210099467207144480762":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1571042919512°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Wf0rr6vccx","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ","endOffset":176°Ӻ,"quote":"Compatibility is a matter of avoiding clash, passing between obstacles, fitting into space that is not encumbered by the conditions that have to be complied with.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321038160899199776932":^°°Ӻ,"text":"Compatibility is a matter of avoiding clash, passing between obstacles, fitting into space that is not encumbered by the conditions that have to be complied with.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1569872350584°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Wxfdne05o1","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ10Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ10Ӻ","endOffset":2691°Ӻ,"quote":"The question of the expressive adequacy of a text, however, becomes almost irrelevant in the face of the obstacles that preclude any verification of a reader’s interpretation. If no direct interaction between reader and author takes place, there may, of course, be some indirect interaction, in the sense that the reader interprets other works, comments, or explanations of the author in question. Any such further reading may or may not lead to a modification of the reader’s interpretation of the first work; but the interpretation of the subsidiary readings will, as a rule, be no less uncertain than the interpretation of the original text—and two uncertainties do not add up to more certainty. \nIf, indeed, the reader consults critics’ or other experts’ comments and explanations, this complicates the issue, because it introduces yet another interpretive step. What critics and experts say, again, can relate only to their own interpretation of the author’s text and not to the author’s intended deeper meaning. The reader thus must interpret what they say about their own interpreting. At best, this may lead to some consensus about how the text can be interpreted, given the conceptual fabric that constitutes the reader’s and critics’ experiential world. But such a “shared” experiential world exists only to the extent to which individuals have interactively established a consensus; it cannot possibly extend to include an author who has not participated in that interaction.Ӷ8Ӻ \nTheoretically, then, one would expect that individuals of an interacting social group could arrive at a consensus concerning the interpretation of a given text. In fact, that seems to happen in certain places and at certain times. But since whatever consensus is achieved can be no more and no less than a relatively smooth fit of individual actions and reactions, a consensus concerning an interpretation does not, and cannot, imply that the participating individuals’ interpretations have to be the same. A consensus merely requires that the manifestations of their interpretations are mutually compatible and do not give rise to perceptible clashes. \n\nThus there would seem to be an inevitable indeterminacy about the correctness of anyone’s interpretation of a text. No amount of investigation of related texts and no amount of interpreting other readers’ or critics’ interpretations could ever establish that there is one true meaning of a text, let alone one that matches the author’s intended meaning. By means of direct interaction, some interpretations may be eliminated as no longer viable, but they cannot confer the stamp of uniqueness or correctness on any that survive.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321075176789112379732":^°°,^"jQuery321075176789112379732":^°°,^"jQuery321075176789112379732":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1571044527772°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"X30bxs5up8","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ11Ӻ","startOffset":1368,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ11Ӻ","endOffset":1587°Ӻ,"quote":"The constraints within which it attempts to achieve viability are set by the text alone and not by any external area of experience. Hence, the quest for the interpretation of a text turns out to be a futile undertaking.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321078197923346423662":^°°Ӻ,"text":"The constraints within which it attempts to achieve viability are set by the text alone and not by any external area of experience. Hence, the quest for the interpretation of a text turns out to be a futile undertaking.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1571045195793°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Xpt1bhq27p","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ","endOffset":217°Ӻ,"quote":"Every child, in order to survive in its community, must learn to interpret a great many linguistic signals in terms of responses that are considered compatible by the adult speakers among whom it lives.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321018273734226842632":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1569944164669°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Xs06lyaurq","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ2Ӻ","startOffset":240,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ2Ӻ","endOffset":999°Ӻ,"quote":"The question of what constitutes confirmation is an extremely tricky one because it hinges on how well the predicted item has been specified. It involves all the thorny problems of definition (e.g., how many drops confirm a prediction of rain?); but in this discussion we can shortcut all that by saying that a prediction will be considered good if, within a stipulated time frame and in the judgment of the people involved, a subsequent experience fits the predictive statement. Whether such a fit can or cannot be found is essentially an empirical question. Both the description and the experiences to be tested are accessible to those who must judge the fit and, though there may be practical difficulties, the question should, in principle, be answerable.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery3210136114328583544222":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1569873033239°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Cv7ksdu538","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ2Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ2Ӻ","endOffset":583°Ӻ,"quote":"About a hundred and fifty years ago, Johannes Müller observed that all the neural impulses or signals that the so-called sense organs send to the cortex of the brain are qualitatively the same. As Heinz von Foerster, who three decades stressed the epistemological importance of this fact, puts it: these neural signals vary in frequency and intensity and tell us “how much”, but they never tell us “what” (Foerster, 1973). In other words, they are quantitative. They contain no information whatever about the character of the event that is supposed to have caused them.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321089237300249124092":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1564134986784°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Eergdxo8a1","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ3Ӻ","startOffset":536,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ3Ӻ","endOffset":785°Ӻ,"quote":"Insofar as we remember these structures, we can recall them—and then they are Re-Presentations. I write this with a hyphen, to indicate that they are pieces of experience we have had and are now reviewing. They are not pieces of an external reality.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery3210081477412974953592":^°°,^"jQuery3210081477412974953592":^°°Ӻ,"text":"Insofar as we remember these structures, we can recall them—and then they are Re-Presentations. I write this with a hyphen, to indicate that they are pieces of experience we have had and are now reviewing. They are not pieces of an external reality.","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1564135601916°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Fqpckogfk5","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ5Ӻ","startOffset":561,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ5Ӻ","endOffset":855°Ӻ,"quote":"Similarly anything that passes through the constraints set by the present environment is adapted, or, as evolutionary biologists sometimes say, everything that survives is viable in the given environment. But just as having slipped through, does not tell the pebbles anything about the screen,","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery3210146407959824010342":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1564141572604°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Hgxr1muxkw","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ2Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ2Ӻ","endOffset":583°Ӻ,"quote":"About a hundred and fifty years ago, Johannes Müller observed that all the neural impulses or signals that the so-called sense organs send to the cortex of the brain are qualitatively the same. As Heinz von Foerster, who three decades stressed the epistemological importance of this fact, puts it: these neural signals vary in frequency and intensity and tell us “how much”, but they never tell us “what” (Foerster, 1973). In other words, they are quantitative. They contain no information whatever about the character of the event that is supposed to have caused them.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321087724610147439272":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1563991414949°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Is7gqnhdx9","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ6Ӻ","startOffset":350,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ6Ӻ","endOffset":441°Ӻ,"quote":"In other words, reality leaves sufficient room for them to work in our experiential world.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321058092305542428832":^°°Ӻ,"text":" In other words, reality leaves sufficient room for them to work in our experiential world.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1564142288952°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Jqlgze4g1a","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ5Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ5Ӻ","endOffset":372°Ӻ,"quote":"Piaget’s primary principle is that knowing is an adaptive function. To appreciate this statement, one has to be quite clear about the biological notion of adaptation. It is not—as one is often led to believe—an activity of organisms or species. It is the result of natural selection and refers to the ability to live and reproduce in the present environment.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery3210146407959824010342":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1564141562570°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"K3oyc0qges","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ","startOffset":1130,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ","endOffset":1367°Ӻ,"quote":"One can therefore say: in perception, sensory signals call up a concept, in re-presentation, on the other hand, a concept calls up sensory impressions. In neither case is the experience caused by what philosophers want to call “reality”.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery3210450245596891884372":^°°Ӻ,"text":"One can therefore say: in perception, sensory signals call up a concept, in re-presentation, on the other hand, a concept calls up sensory impressions. In neither case is the experience caused by what philosophers want to call “reality”.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1564141274214°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"N5qqu4rffq","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ6Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ6Ӻ","endOffset":350°Ӻ,"quote":"As I have tried to show with the metaphor of the screen, viability entails neither “information” about the environment nor correspondence with it. The fact that certain concepts and certain theories “work” for us, in that they do what we expect them to do, means no more than that they are compatible with the constraints we experience.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321058092305542428832":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1564142301454°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Osb51lk0i4","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ5Ӻ","startOffset":855,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ5Ӻ","endOffset":1032°Ӻ,"quote":"so, to have survived does not tell the biological organisms anything about the constraints they have not met, i.e., the constraints that eliminated those that could not survive.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery3210146407959824010342":^°°,^"jQuery3210146407959824010342":^°°Ӻ,"text":"so, to have survived does not tell the biological organisms anything about the constraints they have not met, i.e., the constraints that eliminated those that could not survive.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1564141511834°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"P909p75702","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/pӶ1Ӻ","endOffset":592°Ӻ,"quote":"The main argument of the sceptics is simple and irrefutable. To know whether anything we derive from experience corresponds to, or “represents” an aspect of an external world, we should have to be able to compare it to the real thing. But this we cannot do, because we can compare experiences only to more experiences. \nSome early theologians of the Christian era added another solid argument: Reason, they said, operates with concepts that we have derived from experience; in our experiential field we never meet anything that is omniscient, omnipotent, and ever-present; consequently, we cannot rationally conceive of God, because the knowledge, the power, and the eternity we should ascribe to Him go beyond what is conceivable to us (cf. Meyendorff, 1974).\nUnlike the church that persecuted them, they did not see this as a calamity, because they understood that faith does not require a rational grounding.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery3210475645524282805042":^°°,^"jQuery3210475645524282805042":^°°,^"jQuery3210475645524282805042":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1564134805416°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Ryyj8qxme2","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ2Ӻ","startOffset":584,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ2Ӻ","endOffset":1034°Ӻ,"quote":"According to the neurophysiologist’s model of the nervous system, it therefore appears that the discrimination of sensory modalities—seeing, hearing, touching, etc.—must be the result of the system’s own computation. From this perspective, then, whatever sensory structures, patterns, or images a living system compiles are its own construction, and the notion that they represent something that was there beforehand, has no empirical foundation.Ӷ2Ӻ","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321089237300249124092":^°°Ӻ,"text":" According to the neurophysiologist’s model of the nervous system, it therefore appears that the discrimination of sensory modalities—seeing, hearing, touching, etc.—must be the result of the system’s own computation. From this perspective, then, whatever sensory structures, patterns, or images a living system compiles are its own construction, and the notion that they represent something that was there beforehand, has no empirical foundation.Ӷ2Ӻ","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1564134961583°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Smackij289","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ3Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ3Ӻ/pӶ1Ӻ","endOffset":297°Ӻ,"quote":"I therefore suggest that it would be wiser to scrap the term “representation” in these contexts and to follow Mark Baldwin’s example and speak of “presentations”. This would be much closer to the Kantian term “Vorstellung”.\nThese “presentations” are pieces of experience that we have combined in order to form more and less complex structures, in our attempt to order and systematize the world in which we find ourselves living. It is the only world we know—and it’s a world that only we ourselves perceive and conceive.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery3210081477412974953592":^°°,^"jQuery3210081477412974953592":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1564135622595°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"U69ct8sl0q","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ2Ӻ","startOffset":585,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ2Ӻ","endOffset":1034°Ӻ,"quote":"According to the neurophysiologist’s model of the nervous system, it therefore appears that the discrimination of sensory modalities—seeing, hearing, touching, etc.—must be the result of the system’s own computation. From this perspective, then, whatever sensory structures, patterns, or images a living system compiles are its own construction, and the notion that they represent something that was there beforehand, has no empirical foundation.Ӷ2Ӻ","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321087724610147439272":^°°Ӻ,"text":"According to the neurophysiologist’s model of the nervous system, it therefore appears that the discrimination of sensory modalities—seeing, hearing, touching, etc.—must be the result of the system’s own computation. From this perspective, then, whatever sensory structures, patterns, or images a living system compiles are its own construction, and the notion that they represent something that was there beforehand, has no empirical foundation.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1563991403899°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Ubwx4s36q1","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/pӶ1Ӻ","startOffset":272,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/pӶ1Ӻ","endOffset":913°Ӻ,"quote":"You may, for example, dream that you are in a room, but all you see of the room is a door (perhaps because you expect someone to come in through it). You have no idea of the size of the room, and there are no windows, curtains, pictures, no ceiling or furniture, or anything else that usually characterizes a room. These items may come in later—as the plot of the dream develops— but at this point, they are irrelevant in your dream-presentation of a room.\nIn contrast, your perception of a room starts from sensory impressions that you proceed to coordinate, and they then allow you to consider them compatible with your concept of “room”.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery3210450245596891884372":^°°Ӻ,"text":"You may, for example, dream that you are in a room, but all you see of the room is a door (perhaps because you expect someone to come in through it). You have no idea of the size of the room, and there are no windows, curtains, pictures, no ceiling or furniture, or anything else that usually characterizes a room. These items may come in later—as the plot of the dream develops— but at this point, they are irrelevant in your dream-presentation of a room. In contrast, your perception of a room starts from sensory impressions that you proceed to coordinate, and they then allow you to consider them compatible with your concept of “room”. ","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Beispiel3","data_creacio":1564141347749°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"W0er5ff75u","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ","startOffset":927,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ","endOffset":1176°Ӻ,"quote":"The argument that our concepts, which we abstract from experience, cannot grasp anything that lies beyond our experiential interface, applies not only to the divine but also to any ontological reality posited as independent of the human experiencer.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery3210475645524282805042":^°°,^"jQuery3210475645524282805042":^°°Ӻ,"text":"The argument that our concepts, which we abstract from experience, cannot grasp anything that lies beyond our experiential interface, applies not only to the divine but also to any ontological reality posited as independent of the human experiencer.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1564134796577°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"W6kg6avstq","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ7Ӻ","startOffset":1335,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ7Ӻ","endOffset":1589°Ӻ,"quote":"Compatibility, to repeat it once more, means no more and no less than to fit within constraints. Consequently, it seems to me that one of the most demanding tasks of A.I. would be the plausible simulation of an organism’s experience of social constraints","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321051682516467172362":^°°Ӻ,"text":"Compatibility, to repeat it once more, means no more and no less than to fit within constraints. Consequently, it seems to me that one of the most demanding tasks of A.I. would be the plausible simulation of an organism’s experience of social constraints","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1564144448311°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Xck9vtaejc","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/pӶ1Ӻ","endOffset":271°Ӻ,"quote":"Almost fifty years ago, my friend and teacher Silvio Ceccato made a remark which, I think, is germane to today’s topic because it throws light on the distinction between perception and re-presentation.\nThe most obvious instances of re-presentations happen in our dreams, when there is no perceptual activity at all. These re-presentations, Ceccato said, start from a concept and manifest only such sensory characteristics as are needed in the particular story of the dream.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery3210450245596891884372":^°°,^"jQuery3210450245596891884372":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1564141355365°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Xxbh7fsrb5","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ7Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ7Ӻ","endOffset":1335°Ӻ,"quote":"The experiential environment in which the human organism normally grows up is composed of things and people. The differentiation of these two categories is gradual, and only gradually are different schemes developed for coping with “inanimate” things and coping with people. Eventually the second kind provides far more opportunities for accommodation and learning than the first. Piaget has reiterated this innumerable times, but his critics nevertheless contend that he did not consider social interaction.\nIn fact, the experiential reality we construct for ourselves is to a large extent the result of our social interactions. Insofar as we are able to construct a viable modus vivendi, it is preponderantly due to accommodations in the course of social adaptation. \nIn order to live in a society, a sufficient number of our ideas — our concepts and schemes of action — have to be compatible with those of others. And this compatibility confers on them a viability that goes beyond the merely individual. The same goes for the acquisition and use of language. Communication with others requires that the meanings we attribute to words prove compatible with those of other speakers.\n\nCompatibility, however, does not entail the kind of “match” that is implied when people speak of “shared ideas” or “shared knowledge”.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321051682516467172362":^°°,^"jQuery321051682516467172362":^°°,^"jQuery321051682516467172362":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1564144460533°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Xzttr85swp","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ5Ӻ","startOffset":373,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ5Ӻ","endOffset":560°Ӻ,"quote":"We can visualize it with the help of a metaphor: the environment “selects” in the manner of a screen used to grade gravel: the screen admits what falls through and discards what does not.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery3210146407959824010342":^°°,^"jQuery3210146407959824010342":^°°Ӻ,"text":"We can visualize it with the help of a metaphor: the environment “selects” in the manner of a screen used to grade gravel: the screen admits what falls through and discards what does not.","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Beispiel3","data_creacio":1564141554849°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Bh0w6vhcbk","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ6Ӻ","startOffset":2592,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ6Ӻ","endOffset":2873°Ӻ,"quote":"Hence, this world of ours, no matter how we structure it, no matter how well we manage to keep it stable with permanent objects and recurrent interactions, is by definition the “subjective” world of our experience and not the ontological reality of which philosopher have dreamed.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery32100289695714883712042":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1594913991558°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Gh54d4uejj","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ2Ӻ","startOffset":1882,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ2Ӻ","endOffset":2217°Ӻ,"quote":"That is, we would have assumed that the frog, as we come to know it, exists before we come to know it. In the philosopher’s jargon we would have attributed “ontological reality” to the frog. That is precisely the trap we want to avoid - and we can avoid it if only we start out by taking into account both the frog and its environment.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321050950766540853552":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1594911135894°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"J1b5pfpe3f","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ3Ӻ","startOffset":1245,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ3Ӻ","endOffset":1565°Ӻ,"quote":"The dichotomy of figure and ground, of frog and environment, springs from one and the same set of operations (Le. focusing attention on and differentiating as repeatable unit a specific part of our experiential field); the two sides are conceptually connate, which is to say, we cannot have the one without the other.Ӷ5Ӻ","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321073069669771916312":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1594911751241°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Jjqrqtvkp8","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ5Ӻ","startOffset":3026,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ5Ӻ","endOffset":3406°Ӻ,"quote":"What we ourselves perceive, whether we call it frog, landscape, or mirror image of ourselves, is simply what we perceive: and since we have no way of looking at ourselves and our environment from outside our own experience, we have no possible independent access to whatever it might be that, by analogy to the frog, we would like to hold causally responsible for our perceptions.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery3210401113613822682072":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1594912327794°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Kdbc4eqpgp","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ3Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ3Ӻ","endOffset":1244°Ӻ,"quote":"There is no good reason to assume that our experience begins with ready-made objects, animals, and people; Piaget (1937) for instance, maintains that it takes the child the better part of two years to assemble such items by coordinating much smaller elements of perceptual and concepted experience. In any case, all these items which we come to consider more or less permanent, must, at some point, have been isolated and “individuated” in the field of our experience. This isolating and individuating necessarily had to be achieved by us, for it is we who say that we are aware of them.Ӷ4Ӻ That is, we must have differentiated and cut them from the rest of our experiential field -and, by very act of cutting them out, the rest of our experiential field became their environment. In terms of the actual operations performed by the experiencer, this act of cutting out may be different from an artist’s drawing the outline of a frog on a sheet of paper, but the two acts are the same in that they simultaneously produce a figure and its ground. Whatever specific item we focus our attention on (or talk about) is experienced within a perceptual (or conceptual) field which, explicitly (or implicitly), constitutes its environment.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321073069669771916312":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1594911737486°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"L8gqozu8xa","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ","startOffset":875,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ","endOffset":1141°Ӻ,"quote":"Thus we have to live with doubts about the veracity of our senses, forever cut off from the “things as such,” dealing with “appearances,” and ultimately dependent on pious hopes such as that God could not have been so malicious as to equip us with unreliable senses.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321009590704030666732":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1594909222410°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Lhinv26bi2","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ","endOffset":875°Ӻ,"quote":"This, too, seems, obvious, a downright commonplace. The way we conceive of “senses” and “perception” simply requires a certain arrangement of items and, by and large, we are no more inclined to question that arrangement today than were Socrates and his listeners. It comprises a perceiver and something which he can perceive. That is to say, through his senses, which carry out a “mediating” function, the perceiver acquires a “percept” that is in some way caused by an “external” object. Once we accept that basic arrangement Ӷand, since Socrates, there have been few who did not accept itӶ2ӺӺ, we have landed ourselves a problem that is indeed insoluble: since we have no access to the “external” object except through the process of perception, we shall never be ‘able to tell whether ours percepts are or are not an accurate or true replica of that object.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321009590704030666732":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1594909206085°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Llqp1b3npe","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ7Ӻ","startOffset":1912,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ7Ӻ","endOffset":2306°Ӻ,"quote":"This, in a sense, is no more than an amplification of the well-known and lon8-accepted adage that, thought we can sometimes disprove an hypothesis, we can never prove one no matter how often it happens to work out right. The trouble is, when an hypothesis does ,work out right, we often speak of “confirmation” and begin to believe that we have managed to entrap a piece of ontological reality.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321091951163900470722":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Schlussfolgerung3","data_creacio":1594914639879°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Mtypp24us6","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ6Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ6Ӻ","endOffset":2592°Ӻ,"quote":"In the struggle to organize and systematize our experience, of course, it has seemed quite natural to assign to the active experiencer a location within the part of our experience that we categorize as our body, and, then, in turn, to assign to that body a location within that other part of our experience which we categorize as our own environment. These categorizations seem natural because we make them in analogy to those that proved so successful in isolating and individuating things and organisms in our field of experience (where we have access to things which are outside these organisms). Though the analogy is logically quite illegitimate, because it confounds the experiencer with what he experiences as himself, the world view to which it inevitably leads has proven almost irresistible. It is the view that ascribes to a ready-made world the responsibility and “causes” of our perceptual experience. As Socrates put it, “when I perceive I must become percipient of something.”\nThe Western world has accepted this scenario almost unquestioningly. Nearly all thinkers who have pondered problems of epistemology have explicitly or implicitly adopted the view that the activity of “knowing” begins with a cut between the cognizing subject and the object to be knownӶ6Ӻ. That is, they assume an existing world, an ontological reality, and once this assumption has been made, it follows necessarily that the knower will have this world as his environment and it will be his task to get to know it as best he can. Knowing, thus, becomes an act of duplicating or replicating what is supposed to be already there, outside the knower. The senses become the indispensable mediators that convey “information” in the basis of which the knower can represent to himself a replica of what “exists” – but, literally, only a God could know whether man’s replica is a replica or a fiction.\n\nYet, if what we have said so far has any consistency at all, it should now be clear that the first cut, the most elementary distinction (Brown, 1969) an experiencer can make, may be the intuitively satisfactory cut between himself qua experiencing subject on the one side, and his experience on the other. But this cut can under no circumstances be a cut between himself and an independently existing world of objective objects. Our “knowledge,” whatever rational meaning give to that term, must begin with experience -such as, for instance, the cut we make between the part of our experience that we come to call “ourself” and all the rest of our experience, which we then call our “world.”","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery32100289695714883712042":^°°,^"jQuery32100289695714883712042":^°°,^"jQuery32100289695714883712042":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1594914024998°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"O6m5x6inbt","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ9Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ9Ӻ","endOffset":151°Ӻ,"quote":"Humberto Maturana (1970b) warned us that “anything said is said by an observer.” In our present context I want to extend that warning to:","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery3210184030789652045672":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1594916551322°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"P14r87gjpi","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ8Ӻ","startOffset":14,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ8Ӻ","endOffset":2738°Ӻ,"quote":"A case in point is the problem of “other minds.” If, as a constructivist. I maintain that what I call my world is no more and no less than the result of my particular way of organizing my experience, it appears quite natural to ask how it comes about that that world of mine is peopled with other organisms constructing worlds of their own, and that their worlds seem to be independent of my construction. This does indeed become a problem if, succumbing to the pressure of conventional assumptions, I am misled into attributing ontological reality to those particular constructs that I categorize as “other people.” Though that may be an intuitively desirable attribution, there is no logical justification for making it. The particular parts of my experience that I come to categorize as “other people,” remain parts of my experience and their status cannot be different from that of any other experiential item. That is, I isolate and individuate them on the basis of the invariances and regularities that I establish, in the same way in which I have isolated and individuated all the other more or less permanent ·items in my field of experience. Owing to certain regularities of interaction (i.e. relations which I have established) between frogs and shadows, for instance, I was led to attribute “perceptual” capabilities to the items I call frogs. Owing to other regularities of interaction. I am led to attribute goal-directed activities to certain items I call organisms. Finally, my continual endeavor to establish invariances in my experience leads me to attribute cognitive ability i.e. the ability to construct a world, to other organisms which I then call “other people.”\nIn this last step of delegating an autonomous constructive potential to items within one’s experience, it is easy inadvertently to introduce an ontological element. Before attributing a constructive ability to others, therefore, we should make clear how we came to attribute it to ourselves. On the face of it, it would seem that the ability precedes any construction of an experiential world. Cognitive construction presupposes an experiencer, because we see this construction as an activity that is carried out by a subject. The most elementary distinction an experiencer can make, we. said earlier, may be the cut between himself qua experiencing subject on the one side, and his experience on the other. – Taken as an ontological statement, i.e. a statement of “fact,” this is obviously nonsense since it implies that there is experience prior to the entity that does the experiencing, and that this entity, the experiencer, creates itself by making that elementary cut. But we resolved at the outset to avoid ontological statements.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery321027105796886142852":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1594916375576°
^"permissions":^"read":ӶӺ,"update":ӶӺ,"delete":ӶӺ,"admin":ӶӺ°,"user":^"id":6,"name":"Sarah Oberbichler"°,"id":"Piuofyqopt","ranges":Ӷ^"start":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ9Ӻ","startOffset":195,"end":"/divӶ3Ӻ/divӶ4Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ1Ӻ/divӶ9Ӻ","endOffset":1112°Ӻ,"quote":"If “to know” is to make distinctions in experience and then to set up relations between the parts of experience that have been distinguished, it follows quite inescapably (1) that we can know ourselves only to the extent to which we experience ourselves, and (2) that the self we do experience and incorporate into our cognitive structures, by that very act of construction, ceases to be the self that does the experiencing. This constructive interdependence between observer and observed has not seemed palatable to the Western mind. Since the Greeks, circular arguments have always engendered a sort of horror infinitatis. Aquinas spoke of vicious circles. Yet, in the light of the preceding discussion, it should be evident that the shift in epistemology we have outlined also requires a proper rehabilitation of circularity or self-reference so that they can be included as legitimate ground in rational thinking.","highlights":Ӷ^"jQuery3210184030789652045672":^°°Ӻ,"text":"","order":"mw-content-text","category":"Prämisse3","data_creacio":1594916587051°
